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VERTICAL 
FARMING 


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GILBERT  ELLIS  BAILEY,  A.M.«E.M.,Ph.D. 

PROF.  OF  GEOLOGY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


COPYRIGHT,  1915 

E.  I.  DU  PONT  DE  NEMOURS  POWDER  CO. 

WILMINGTON,  DELAWARE 


.:> 


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VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  I 

The  Origin  and  Character  of  Soils 

Soils  Are  Rock  Waste. — Soils  were  not  originally  a  part  of 
the  earth's  surface,  but  have  been  formed  slowly  by  the  crum- 
bling and  breaking  up  of  the  surface  rocks  into  fine  particles, 
such  as  clay  and  sand.  Sometimes  this  breaking  up  occurred 
where  the  soils  are  now  found,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  is 
governed  by  the  kind  of  rock  that  was  left  on  the  surface, 
while  in  other  cases  the  rocks  and  the  soil  that  came  from  them 
have  been  carried  thousands  of  miles  and  mixed  with  other 
material,  forming  a  conglomerate  mixture  from  many  sources. 
The  highland  and  mountain  soils  in  this  country  have,  as  a  rule, 
been  formed  very  near  the  places  where  they  are  now  found, 
while  the  soils  in  the  larger  valleys,  and  along  most  of  the 
coast  line,  have  resulted  from  material  washed  down  from  the 
hills  and  deposited  along  the  level  stretches  near  the  sea. 
Much  of  the  soil  of  the  more  northern  states  has  been  brought 
down  from  Canada  by  the  movement  of  ice  along  the  surface. 

This  breaking  down  of  the  rocks  and  formation  and  moving 
of  the  soil  has  taken  a  long  time;  but  this  work  is  yet  going 
on,  and  the  exposed  rocks,  boulders  and  ledges  in  our  fields  and 
mountains  are  yearly  being  attacked  by  the  different  forces, 
and  are  slowly  yielding  up  material  to  help  replenish  the  older 
soil.  Different  natural  and  artificial  processes  are  also  going 
on  in  the  soils  that  may  either  improve  or  injure  them.  Most 
of  these  processes  can  be  controlled  by  man  and  made  to  be  his 
servant,  so  that  he  can  become  a  great  factor  in  the  formation 
of  profitable  soil. 


2     S^\:lA>^'&irttA^     FARMING 

The  breaking  down  of  the  original  rocks  has  been  accom- 
pHshed  by  very  simple  means,  the  action  of  which  has  been  very 
powerful. 

Work  of  the  Atmosphere. — Everyone  knows  how  a  piece  of 
iron  is  attacked  and  falls  into  a  powdery  iron  dust,  which  is 
nothing  but  iron  combined  with  oxygen  taken  from  the  air  to 
form  a  different  substance  called  iron  oxide.  The  oxygen, 
carbon  dioxide  and  other  gases  of  the  air  attack  the  iron,  lime 
and  other  elements  in  the  rocks,  forming  new  substances  and 
causing  the  particles  to  fall  apart,  as  is  the  case  of  the  iron 


u.  s.  G.  s. 


EFFECT  OF  WIND  ACTION  ON  ROCKS 


rusting.  Rocks  are  also  carved,  eroded  and  worn  away  by  the 
cutting  and  sawing  action  of  the  wind,  especially  when  it  carries 
with  it  any  considerable  amount  of  dust  or  sharp  sand  particles. 
In  this  way  large  rocks  are  sometimes  entirely  worn  away.  In 
some  localities  in  this  country  the  sand  is  swept  across  the  level 


VERTICAL    FARMING  3 

stretches  so  severely  as  to  smooth  off  the  rough  places  on  brick 
walls,  and  to  scar  the  glass  in  windows. 


U.  S.  G.  S. 


L[ME  STONE   AFTER   EROSION 


The  Part  Played  by  Water. — Much  rock  material  is  slowly 
dissolved  out  and  carried  away  by  rain  water.  This  is  usually 
carried  long  distances  before  being  thrown  back  into  a  solid 
state  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  or  by  coming  into  con- 
tact with  some  other  substance  that  causes  it  to  be  precipitated. 
Often  this  reforms  into  another  rock  that  may  be  harder  than 
the  original  one. 

A  much  greater  effect  of  water,  however,  is  in  the  formation 
of  ice,  which  expands  and  acts  as  a  powerful  wedge  in  splitting 
off  small  fragments.  You  will  often  notice  along  the  foot  of  a 
cliff,  or  at  the  base  of  a  large  rock,  a  mass  of  small  splinters  of 
stone  that  have  been  pried  off  the  parent  rock  in  this  way. 
Running  water  also  slowly  wears  away  even  the  hardest  rocks, 
reducing  their  close  material  into  finer  particles. 


ENTRANCE  TO  THE  GARDEN  OF  THE  GODS 
A    BEAUTIFUL   EXAMPLE   OF   EROSION 


RUNNING   WATER   SLOWLY   WEARING   AWAY   HARD  ROCK 


VERTICAL     FARMING  5 

Glaciation. — During  the  glacial  age  vast  sheets  of  ice,  carry- 
ing with  them  boulders  and  everything  else  that  was  movable, 
passed  over  much  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  ground 


BOULDERS  WORN  SMOOTH  BY  GLACIAL  ACTION 

up  the  rocks  into  soil.  Large  areas  of  the  richest  soils  were 
formed  in  this  way.  Smaller  movements  of  ice  occurred  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Northwest  and  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
some  wonderful  soil  areas  there.  These  movements  of  ice 
leveled  down  the  rough  surfaces  of  mountain  ranges  and 
scoured  out  wide  valleys. 

Variations  of  Heat  and  Cold. — The  variations  of  tem- 
perature from  day  to  night  and  from  summer  to  winter  have 
also  been  busy  in  grinding  out  soil  meal.  When  it  is  warm 
the  rocks  expand  slowly,  and  contract  under  lower  temper- 
atures. The  different  minerals  in  the  rocks  expand  and  con- 
tract unequally,  causing  cracking  which  flakes  off  the  outside 
of  the  rock  and  permits  of  its  being  attacked  much  more  easily 
by  other  agents  of  destruction,  or  perhaps,  better  said,  of 
creation.  The  effect  of  these  changes  of  temperature  are  more 
noticed  in  some  of  the  higher  and  drier  regions  where  the  hot 
evening  gives  way  quickly  to  cold  night.  It  has  been  reported 
that  this  action  is  at  times  so  violent  as  to  split  large  pebbles  in 
half  so  quickly  that  a  noticeable  report,  like  the  bursting  of  a 
percussion  cap,  is  made. 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


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1 

ROOTS   OF  TREE   WIDENING   A   CRACK    IN    A   ROCK.      WHEN   GIVEN 

FISSURES  TO  GROW  THROUGH   ROOTS  WILL  PENETRATE  HARD 

MATERIAL  TO  GREAT  DEPTHS 

Plants  Render  Assistance. — Just  as  soon  as  a  little  powder 
is  formed  from  the  rocks  by  the  action  of  these  agencies,  minute 
plants,  some  of  which  can  be  seen  only  by  means  of  a  micro- 
scope, fasten  on  the  rock  meal  and  begin  to  grow.  As  they 
mature  and  die,  their  tiny  bodies  add  the  first  organic  matter 
to  the  newly  formed  soil  and  help  prepare  it  for  larger  and 
more  vigorous  plants.  The  study  of  this  action  is  very  inter- 
esting,' and  a  short  search  into  any  stony  place  will  reveal  many 
examples.  Mats  of  short  moss  will  be  found  growing  on  what 
seem  absolutely  dead  and  impervious  stone.  Trees  can  be 
found  sending  their  roots  into  the  smallest  fissures  in  the  rocks 
and  bursting  them  wider.  It  is  a  hard  life  for  these  plants, 
and  their  growth  is  slow  and  stunted,  but  it  is  one  of  their 
missions  in  nature  and  they  go  on  with  the  heavy  work,  giving 
to  man  at  the  same  time  a  wonderful  revelation  of  what  he  can 


VERTICAL     FARMING  7 

accomplish  in  the  way  of  improvement  by  giving  cultivated 
trees  and  smaller  plants  a  suitable  place  to  grow,  rather  than 
force  them  to  combat  all  the  adversities  of  a  resistant  soil. 

Animals  Help. — Tiny  worms  and  bugs  soon  begin  to  burrow 
into  the  weaker  points  of  the  rocks,  and  as  the  work  goes  on 
much  larger  cousins  follow  them.  Their  action  is  to  open 
channels  through  which  water  can  reach  more  effectively  the 
harder  rock  within.  They  also  do  large  amounts  of  grinding 
and  mixing  on  their  own  part.  Their  excretions  and  their  dead 
bodies  add  more  organic  matter  to  the  soil  and  help  pave  the 
way  for  a  good  garden  or  a  fruitful  field. 


U.  S.G.S. 

SOIL  GROUND   AND   MIXED   BY  ANTS 

Each  Force  Helps  the  Others. — These  forces  in  their  slow 
work  of  grinding  up  the  rocks  into  earth  meal  do  not  work 
separately,  but  each  helps  the  other.  When  one  worker  has 
opened  a  way  into  the  rock,  his  success  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  activities  on  the  part  of  the  others.  The  roots  and 
worms  open  channels  to  permit  the  entrance  of  more  water, 
which  may  mean  more  freezing  and  more  cracking,  and  there  is 
more  room  for  roots,  An  expansion  crack  works  the  same 
way.  The  pits  made  in  the  face  of  the  rock  by  the  action  of 
the  air  make  suitable  homes  for  the  mosses  and  other  plants. 
It  is  a  big  job,  and  the  work  is  accomplished  only  by  all  hands 
keeping  busy. 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


The  Formation  of  Humus. — The  rocl<:  powder  or  meal  does 
not  of  itself  make  a  desirable  soil,  and  other  matter  must  be 
added.  Microscopic  plants  must  flourish  to  help  in  the  work  of 
crop  production ;  water  must  be  present,  and  as  a  rule,  the  more 
humus  the  better  the  crops.  This  humus  is  not  a  strange  sort 
of  stuff  at  all,  as  it  is  only  rotten  trash  from  dead  plants  or 
animals.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  how  its  first  start 
is  made.  This  is  later  augmented  by  the  growth  of  larger 
plants  which  have  more  leaves,  twigs  and  roots  to  rot.  In 
increasing  the  amount  of  humus  in  a  soil  the  work  of  man, 
when  intelligently  applied,  can  be  made  to  do  wonders. 


^^"^^^^«i^^?- 

GREEN   MANURE  CROP  FOR   INCREASING  HUMUS 

How  Soils  are  Moved. — After  the  agencies  just  described 
have  ground  out  the  rock  powder,  nature  keeps  right  on  at 
work  in  moving  and  sorting  out  the  soil  particles.  This  work 
is  done  by  the  action  of : 

Gravity. — The  soils  formed  on  the  mountains  and  cliffs  fall 
to  the  base  forming  a  heap  of  debris  which  is  called  ''  tallus." 
Where  the  slope  is  steep,  this  falling  is  immediate ;  but  where 
the  land  is  more  level,  the  movement  is  slower  and  is  more  of  a 
slide  than  a  fall.  Gravity  is  ever  at-  work  moving  soils  from 
high  to  low  levels. 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


'  "■  %m: 


US.GS. 

THE  MOVEMENT  OF  SOIL  FORMING  MATERIAL  BY  GRAVITY. 


Water. — Every  drop  of  water  that  falls  on  the  earth  can 
move  a  particle  of  soil  at  least  a  little  distance.  These  drops 
of  rain  run  together  to  form  rivulets,  each  with  its  little  load 
of  soil.  Rivulets  meet  to  form  streams,  and  these  join  to  form 
creeks,  and  the  creeks  unite  to  form  rivers.  A  creek  or  river 
in  flood-time  is  a  stream  of  soil  moving  down  from  the  factory 
to  be  spread  out  over  distant  valleys  and  plains,  or  to  fill  up  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  so  that  it  can  finally  be  used  by  man  to  grow 
food  and  raiment. 

Glaciers. — The  great  sheets  of  ice  that  have  already  been 
described  moved  great  distances,  and  carried  with  them  large 
amounts  of  soil  and  soil  material.  Some  of  them  moved  from 
Canada  into  what  is  now  the  United  States,  and  brought  fertile 
material  far  within  our  borders  to  make  some  of  the  richest 
land  in  the  world. 

Winds. — The  housekeeper  knows  how  fast  dust  accumu- 
lates over  everything,  and  how  it  thickens  on  furniture  and 
carpets  if  left  undisturbed  for  even  a  short  time.     The  winds 


VERTICAL    FARMING  11 

have  been  busy,  not  for  days  but  for  centuries  untold,  picking 
up  soils  in  one  place  and  dropping  them  in  another — sorting 
and  arranging  them  until  it  is  probable  that  any  given  section 
of  land  anywhere  contains  particles  contributed  by  every  other 
section  in  that  district. 

Residual  Soils. — Not  all  soils  are  moved  in  these  ways.  In 
places,  sometimes  large,  sometimes  small,  the  original  rocks  of 
the  locality  have  weathered  down  into  soils  that  remain  just 
where  they  were  formed.  These  are  known  as  "  residual  soils," 
and  embrace  a  great  variety,  some  of  which  are  fertile,  while 
others  are  not  so  well  favored.  The  proportion  of  residual  soils 
to  transported  soils  varies  greatly  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
v/orld. 

Some  of  the  Physical  Characteristics  of  Soils. — Soils  have 
a  number  of  marked  physical  characteristics,  some  of  which  are 
of  interest  only  to  the  exact  scientist,  but  many  of  these  char- 
acteristics are  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  poorest  farmer. 
The  greatest  advances  made  in  the  Science  of  the  New  Agri- 
culture have  been  due  to  the  study  of  these  physical  character- 
istics of  soils,  and  the  application  of  the  discoveries  along  this 
line  have  tended  toward  a  better  and  more  profitable  agriculture. 

Soil  Texture. — One  of  the  most  noticeable  differences  in 
soils  is  the  variations  in  the  size  of  the  grains  of  rock  powder  of 
which  they  are  made.  The  fineness  of  a  soil  is  spoken  of  as  its 
"  texture."  The  sizes  of  grains  most  discussed  and  best  under- 
stood both  by  the  student  and  farmer  are:  clay,  silt,  sand, 
and  gravel.  It  is  well  known  that  sand,  loam,  and  clay  soils 
will  not  raise  the  same  crops  equally  well.  There  are  good 
reasons  for  this.  In  a  sandy  soil  the  particles  are  relatively 
large  and  do  not  pack  so  closely  together.  No  matter  how 
tightly  packed  a  soil  may  be,  there  are  always  small  openings 
and  cavities  between  the  particles.  These  are  called  "  pores." 
The  sandy  soils  do  not  pack  so  closely  together  as  do  the  clays, 
and  the  pores  are  therefore  larger  and  permit  a  much  easier 
movement  of  water  and  air  in  the  soil.  The  clay  soils  pack 
more  closely  together  and  reduce  the  size  of  the  pores  so  that 


12  VERTICAL    FARMING 

both  the  water  and  air  move  more  slowly.  The  silts  and  loams 
are  intermediate  between  the  sands  and  the  clays.  Loam  soils 
are  made  up  of  mixtures  of  fine  and  coarse  soil  particles.  If 
the  loam  carries  a  large  percentage  of  sand  it  is  known  as  a 
sandy  loam;  if  the  clay  particles  predominate  in  amount,  it  is 
known  as  a  clay  loam.  The  presence  of  gravel  among  the  other 
particles  materially  affects  the  texture  of  a  soil  and  often  the 
fertility  as  well.  When  a  considerable  amount  of  these  particles 
are  present  in  a  loam  soil  it  is  usually  called  a  gravelly  loam,  the 
difference  in  clay  and  sand  being  maintained  as  before.  The 
intermediate  textures,  such  as  fine  sandy  loam,  silt  loam,  and 
the  lighter  clay  loams  are  usually  considered  the  best,  as  they 
tend  to  be  light,  well  drained  and  easily  cultivated. 


-vV/v.'Vv* 


COMPARATIVE  SIZES  OF  SAND  AND  CLAY  PARTICLES    ( ENLARGED) 


When  the  percentage  of  fine  gravel  and  coarse  sand  is  high, 
the  soil  is  likely  to  be  too  loose,  too  easily  drained,  and  not 
likely  to  withstand  drought  well.  Such  a  soil,  especially  in  the 
rainy  regions,  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in  one  or  more  of  the 
chemical  elements  needed  for  the  production  of  plants.  Where 
the  percentage  of  fine  silt  and  clay  is  high,  the  soil  is  likely  to 
be  cold,  heavy,  and  sour.  Such  a  soil,  unless  well  tilled  to  con- 
siderable depths,  resists  the  ready  movement  of  air  and  moist- 
ure. 

Soil  Structure. — Another  important  physical  characteristic 
of  soils  is  the  way  the  particles  arrange  themselves  as  they  lie 
in  the  field.  A  coarse  sand  is  found  to  have  every  particle 
lying  separate,  and  alone  with  no  attachment  to  the  particles 
which  it  touches,  unless  they  are  cemented  together  by  excesses 
of  lime  or  similar  substances.    The  clay  in  a  path  will  be  found 


VERTICAL     FARMING  13 

to  have  its  particles  arranged  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  sand, 
with  the  important  exception  that  each  is  pressed  close  to  its 
neighbor  and  bound  there  by  cohesion,  by  adhesion,  by  some 
other  substance  present,  by  interlocking  corners  of  the  parti- 
cles, or  by  other  means.  When  such  a  soil  is  disturbed  it  does 
not  fall  apart  like  sand,  but  remains  in  close,  hard  lumps  or 
clods.  In  these  soils  we  have  the  extremes  of  structure — the 
open  structure,  or  the  individual  grain  and  the  dense  structure 
or  arrangement  of  the  pubbled  soil.  A  well- 
tilled  plat  of  clay  or  loam  will  be  found  to 
have  an  entirely  different  structure.  Here 
the  fine  particles  of  clay,  silt  and  sand  are 
bound  together  in  little  groups  or  crumbs. 
These  crumbs  or  granules  can  be  easily  de- 
tected by  picking  up  a  handful  of  the  soil  and 
gently  breaking  it  apart.  These  crumbs  diagram  of  soil 
lie  close  against  other  crumbs,  but  unless  granules 
poorly  handled  in  cultivating  they  do  not  be- 
come sealed  together.  This  is  the  ideal  structure  of  a  soil,  and  it 
is  toward  the  formation  of  such  graimles  that  we  should  direct 
our  attention,  especially  in  the  heavier  soils.  When  such  a  soil 
is  cultivated  wet,  the  pressing  action  of  the  plow  or  harrow 
tends  to  force  the  particles  closer  together  and  to  form  the 
undesired  puddled  structure;  but  if  the  moisture  content  is  just 
right,  the  same  plowing  will  tend  to  make  the  granulation  still 
better.  Additions  of  humus  material,  and,  on  some  soils,  of 
lime,  help  also. 

Such  a  crumb  structure  in  a  soil  brings  about  most  of  the 
benefits  and  advantages  of  both  a  sand  and  a  clay.  It  drains 
well,  and  because  of  its  open  structure  warms  up  well  in  the 
spring.  The  openness  permits  easy  and  good  plowing.  The 
fine  particles  absorb  and  hold  the  large  amount  of  water  needed 
for  the  crop,  and  if  properly  cultivated  to  preserve  this  moist- 
ure, will  tide  heavy  crops  over  longer  periods  of  rainless  times. 
Another  great  advantage  of  the  crumb  or  open  structure  of 
clay  and  loam  soils  is  that  they  allow  the  roots  to  grow  quickly 
to  great  depths.    This  affords  the  plant  a  much  larger  amount 


14 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


of  soil  from  which  to  draw  moisture  and  food,  and  consequently 
yields  heavier  crops.  In  another  paper  the  good  effects  of  this 
open  structure  on  beneficial  bacteria  will  be  pointed  out. 

Hardpan  and  Plow  Soil. — Another  soil  structure  that  needs 
attention  is  hardpan.  Sometimes  this  is  simply  the  tight  pud- 
dled clay  that  has  already  been  described;  and  sometimes  it  is 
clay,  silt  or  sand  that  has  been  cemented  together  by  some 
chemical  or  mineral  substance  in  the  soil,  or  by  the  soil  particles 
themselves  being  so  tightly  pressed  together  that  they  prevent 
the  movement  of  water  and  air,  and  retard  the  growth  of  roots. 
One  kind  of  hardpan  is  called  plow  sole,  and  is  found  just  at 
the  bottom  of  the  plowed  furrow  where  the  slide  of  the  plow 
has  been  for  years  packing  down  the  soil  just  where  it  needs  to 


;   OP£N    SOIL      -no  \ 
MEDIUM    depth'- 


COMMON  TYPES  OF  HARI3PAN 


be  opened.  The  relief  from  such  conditions  is  found  in  deep 
cultivation  that  will  crack  the  material  to  pieces  and  permit 
good  drainage  where  it  is  bad.  This  breaking  must,  of  course, 
be  deep  enough  to  reach  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  Any  adverse 
conditions,  such  as  an  excess  of  alkali  or  a  lack  of  lime,  should 
be  immediately  corrected. 

Soils  and  Subsoils. — By  soil  we  mean  the  surface  as  con- 
trasted with  the  lower  stratum  of  subsoil.  Ordinarily  they  have 
come  from  the  same  source,  and  at  times  are  so  much  alike  that 
it  is  hard  to  distinguish  between  them.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  semi-arid  regions,  and  in  the  deep  aluvial  belts. 
Usually  there  is  a  difference  in  texture,  structure,  and  color. 
The  soil  has  been  well  weathered  and  has  undergone  changes 


VERTICAL     FARMING  15 

that  will  permit  the  giving  up  of  its  mineral  plant  foods  to  the 
roots  of  plants.  These  changes  have  gone  on  more  slowly  in 
the  stiffer  subsoils,  and  much  of  the  mineral  substances  have 
not  been  acted  upon  sufficiently  by  the  air  and  by  bacteria  to 
give  up  the  needed  foods.  Deep  cultivation  and  the  use  of 
explosives  open  up  these  soils  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  other 
agencies  so  that  these  foods  may  be  prepared  for  the  roots,  and 
increased  fertility  and  greater  returns  in  crops  are  the  result. 

Soil  Areas,  Series,  and  Names. — The  soils  of  the  United 
States  are  classified  into  thirteen  subdivisions  called  "  Soil 
Provinces,"  or  regions,  according  to  the  essential  geographic 
features,  such  as  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plains  Province, 
the  Appalachian  Mountain  and  Plateau  Province,  the  Great 
Plains  Region,  the  Arid  Southwest  Region,  and  the  Pacific 
Coast  Region.  The  soils  of  a  province  are  classified  in  soil 
series.  The  soils  in  a  series  have  the  same  range  of  color,  same 
general  character  of  subsoil,  a  common  or  similar  origin,  about 
the  same  structure,  and  broadly,  the  same  type  of  relief  and 
drainage.  The  soil  series  are  divided  into  individual  soils,  which 
generally  receive  local  names,  as :  Portsmouth  Sandy  Loam, 
which  is  found  in  several  states  from  Delaware  to  Mississippi ; 
Vermont  Silt  Loam,  of  Kansas  and  Texas ;  and  the  San  Joaquin 
Fine  Sandy  Loam,  of  the  Pacific  Region.  A  soil  class  includes 
all  the  soils  having  the  same  texture,  and  are  called:  sands, 
loams,  clays,  fine  sandy  loams,  clay  loams,  clay  loam  adobe,  or 
such  other  combination  of  descriptive  words  as  best  fits  the 
peculiarity  of  the  soil. 

Maps  of  the  soil  surveys  of  the  various  provinces,  and 
descriptions  of  the  series  and  individual  soils  of  the  surveyed 
areas  will  be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Soils,  and  may  be  consulted  at  the  larger  public  libraries ;  or 
if  a  particular  county  has  been  mapped,  the  report  on  it  can  be 
gotten  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Chemistry  of  the  Soil. — While  it  is  true  that  the  productive- 
ness of  a  soil  depends  more  on  its  physical  character  and  con- 
dition than  upon  its  chemical  composition,  yet  the  chemical  ele- 


16  VERTICAL     FARMING 

ments  are  of  great  importance  and  must  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. Many  chemical  elements  are  needed  for  the  production 
of  a  plant,  but  it  is  seldom,  with  tlie  exception  of  potash,  lime, 
phosphorus,  or  nitrogen,  that  any  of  these  is  not  present  in 
sufficient  amounts.  All  of  these  except  the  last  named  occur  in 
many  rocks,  and  are  therefore  found  in  the  soils  in  varying 
amounts.  When,  on  a  particular  soil,  one  or  more  of  these  is 
absent  or  deficient,  it  is  necessary  to  add  it  in  some  form  of 
fertilizer  or  manure. 

The  soil  particles  may  not  be  weathered  enough  to  make  these 
minerals  available,  or  there  may  be  little  in  the  surface  soil  and 
more  in  the  subsoil.  In  either  case  the  soil  is  improved  and 
the  plant  food  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  crop  by  breaking 
and  stirring  up  the  land  with  explosives. 

Fertilization  and  Chemical  Correction. — In  addition  to  the 
proper  physical  condition,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  chemical 
condition  of  a  soil  well  regulated  in  order  that  we  may  get  the 
proper  returns  from  our  labor.  Some  foods  may  need  to  be 
added  to  the  soil,  or  it  may  be  essential  that  a  harmful  sub- 
stance be  removed  or  neutralized.  This  work  will  be  considered 
in  a  following  chapter. 


VERTICAL     FARMING  17 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  formation  of  one  type  of  soil  not  made  from 

rock  particles. 

2.  Does  the  action  of  the  air  always  soften  freshly  exposed 

rocks  ? 

3.  Name  the  forces  that  have  been  most  effective  in  forming 

the  soils  in  your  vicinity. 

4.  By  what  agencies  have  your  soils  been  moved? 

5.  Is  the  typical  soil  of  your  farm  finer  or  coarser  than  the 

underlying  subsoil  ? 

6.  Can  a  mixture  of  coarse  sand  and  clay  become  as  tightly 

compacted  as  a  dense  clay? 

7.  What,  in  detail,  are  the  processes  in  the  formation  of  plow 

sole  on  your  typical  soils  ? 

8.  Why  are  arid  soils  less  troubled  with  shortages  of  plant  food 

than  humid  soils  ? 

9.  What  physical  characteristic  of  your  soils  lends  itself  most 

readily  to  improvement  ? 


THE  RESULT  OF  GOOD  DRAINAGE,  GOOD  AERATION  AND 
PLENTY  OF   PLANT  FOOD 


VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  II 

Fertilizers  and  the  Chemical  Properties 
of  the  Soil 

HOW  PLANTS  FEED 

The  fertility  of  a  soil  is  its  ability  to  produce  crops.  It  is 
not  one  condition,  or  two  or  three  conditions,  but  the  sum  of  all 
conditions.  It  does  not  consist  simply  in  hauling  manures  or 
buying  chemicals.  It  means  that  the  water,  air,  temperature, 
soil  bacteria,  tilth,  and  plant  food  or  soil  solution  exist  in  the 
right  conditions  and  proper  balance  as  well  as  in  proper  amount. 
It  is  possible  for  seed  to  sprout,  the  crop  to  grow  and  ripen,  and 
the  yield  to  be  the  best  only  when  all  these  conditions  are  ful- 
filled. Mere  richness  in  mineral  foods  avails  nothing  if  water 
is  lacking  to  maintain  a  large  amount  of  soil  solution  for  the 
roots  to  absorb.  The  plant  food  may  be  there  but  may  not  be 
soluble  and  cannot  be  absorbed.  It  may  be  soluble,  but  in  a 
form  distasteful  to  and  therefore  rejected  by  the  roots. 

All  soils,  even  those  considered  poor,  contain  vast  amounts 
of  plant  food  that  is  not  naturally  available,  but  which  can  be 
converted  into  an  available  form.  In  such  a  case  the  problem 
is  one  of  condition  and  not  one  of  total  content.  A  worn  out 
soil  is  often  only  an  unsanitary  one  and  can  be  rebuilt  to  a  high 
state  of  productivity  by  proper  cultural  methods. 

Chemical  Properties  of  the  Soil. — While  hundreds  of  min- 
erals are  known  to  science,  only  a  few  are  used  in  nature  in 
forming  the  common  rock  from  which  most  soils  are  derived. 
The  more  important  of  these  to  the  farmer  are  potash,  phos- 


20 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


phorus,  and  lime,  as  these  are  at  times  deficient  or  else  appear 
to  be  deficient.  Such  elements  as  iron,  aluminum,  and  silica 
may  be  ignored,  as  they  are  nearly  always  present  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  more  than  supply  any  demand  made  on  them. 

For  most  agricultural  conditions  it  is  almost  imperative  that 
the  soil  be  not  acid.  The  chief  corrective  for  a  sour  condition 
is  lime,  which  is  usually  present  in  sufficient  amounts  for  a 
food,  but  in  many  soils  is  needed  to  overcome  the  sour  condi- 
tions produced  by  vegetable  decay  or  bad  drainage.  It  may  be 
added  in  several  dififerent  forms.  At  present,  carbonate  of 
lime  or  finely  ground  limestone  or  marble  dust  is  largely  used 
for  this  purpose.  This  form  is  preferred  by  many  on  account 
of  there  being  no  danger  of  trouble  from  an  over-application. 
Hydrated  lime  is  also  largely  used,  as  is  rock  or  quick  lime.    In 


Courtesy  Charles  ll'cniier  Co. 

MAMMOTH  LIME  KILN 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


21 


using  the  last  named  form,  care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  a 
heavy  appHcation  from  burning  the  organic  matter  or  humus 
out  of  the  soil.  Ground  or  burned  sea  shells  are  also  extensively 
used  and  make  an  excellent  form  of  agricultural  lime.  Gypsum 
is  used  under  certain  conditions.  Lime  also  has  a  material 
effect  on  the  structure  of  the  soil,  especially  when  it  has  a 
tendency  to  be  sour,  by  causing  it  to  granulate  better,  thereby 
increasing  its  power  to  absorb  and  hold  water.  Especially  in 
the  east  and  southeast  the  use  of  lime  is  imperative  for  the  best 
success  .in  growing  alfalfa  and  certain  other  legumes.  The 
cow  pea  seems  to  resist  a  sour  condition  in  the  soil  remarkably 
well.  Lime  also  helps  somewhat  to  liberate  potash  from  resist- 
ant minerals.  Salt  is  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  growth  of  nitrogen  fixing  bacteria  is  greatly  stimulated 
when  lime  is  added  to  make  up  any  deficiency  that  may  exist  in 
the  natural  soil. 

Potash  is  a  highly  essential  plant  food.  It  exists  naturally  in 
most  soils  and  in  some  of  them  is  found  in  large  amounts.  In 
some  soils,  notably  coastal  plains  sands,  it  is  present  in  but 


SHIP    DISCHARGING    CARGO    OF    EXPENSIVE    FERTILIZERS 


22  VERTICAL    FARMING 

small  amounts  and  must  be  added  artificially.  Considerable 
amounts  are  found  in  natural  manures,  but  the  great  supply  is 
imported  into  this  country  from  Germany. 

Phosphorus  is  also  present  in  most  normal  soils,  but  the  per- 
centage is  small  in  some  of  the  most  valuable  soil  provinces  of 
the  country  so  that  it  must  be  added  artificially.  Large  amounts 
of  phosphate  rock  are  mined  in  this  country.  The  rock  may  be 
ground  and  added  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  pro- 
vided the  soil  has  a  good  supply  of  organic  matter.  If  this 
organic  matter  is  deficient  and  the  soils  are  thin,  the  best  results 
are  reported  from  the  use  of  acid  phosphate  which  is  the  phos- 
phate rock  after  it  has  been  treated  with  sulphuric  acid.  Large 
amounts  of  phosphorus  are  used  in  the  form  of  slag  and  bone 
products.  The  United  States  is  more  than  self-sustaining  in 
the  supply  of  phosphates  and  export  large  amounts  annually. 

Another  of  the  important  elements  is  nitrogen,  which  is  found 
in  the  form  of  nitrates  in  some  of  the  desert  regions.  In  this 
form  it  is  very  soluble  and  is  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  rains.  It 
is  found  in  normal  agricultural  soils  in  varying  amounts,  but  is 
often  in  too  small  quantities.  Commercially  it  is  obtained  from 
fish  and  packing  house  scrap,  from  cotton  seed,  from  nitrate  of 
soda  imported  from  Chili,  and  from  the  air.  Nitrogen  is  a  gas 
and  makes  up  the  larger  part  of  the  air,  from  which  it  may  be 
taken  in  large  amounts  by  certain  bacteria  growing  on  the  roots 
of  legumes  and  by  other  microscopic  plants  working  alone. 
Further  mention  will  be  made  of  this  later. 

How  Plants  Feed. — Plants  feed  by  absorption  through  the 
roots  and  by  inhaling  the  air.  When  a  plant  is  burned,  most 
of  its  weight  is  lost  in  the  form  of  gases  and  but  a  small  part 
is  left  as  ash.  The  ash  contains  the  mineral  matter  which  came 
originally  from  the  breaking  up  of  the  soil  minerals,  or  was 
added  as  a  fertilizer.  The  rest,  or  the  part  that  was  lost  in  the 
gas  is  made  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  The 
carbon  is  taken  in  through  the  leaves  from  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
of  the  air.  The  hydrogen  and  the  rest  of  the  oxygen  are  taken 
in  through  the  roots  in  the  form  of  water,  and  the  nitrogen  is 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


23 


derived  from  the  soil  where  it  may  have  accumulated  from  arti- 
ficial supplies,  from  the  action  of  bacteria,  or  from  the  decay 
of  organic  matter.  The  relative  amounts  of  these  elements 
demanded  by  different  plants  varies  considerably,  as  some  re- 
quire a  large  supply  of  one  food  element  while  others  can  grow 
well  with  much  less  of  it. 

Only  the  root  hairs,  the  most  delicate 
part  of  the  root  system,  can  absorb  foods. 
These  are  tiny  threads  growing  out  from 
the  roots  just  back  of  the  tiny  feelers  or 
root  tips  that  thrust  themselves  through  the 
soil.  The  walls  of  these  root  hairs  are 
very  thin  and  absorb  the  soil  solution  direct 
as  they  lie  in  close  touch  with  the  soil  par- 
ticles covered  with  their  thin  coat  of  ''  Min- 
eral Soup."  These  dissolved  mineral  foods 
then  pass  on  into  the  circulating  system  of 
the  plants  as  sap,  and  are  carried  up  to  the 
leaves.  The  sap  in  conjunction  with  the 
carbonic  acid  taken  in  by  the  leaves  then 
forms  the  starch,  sugar  and  similar  com- 
pounds of  the  plant  and  the  excess  of  water 
is  lost  through  the  leaves.  The  amount  of 
water  evaporated  in  this  way  is  enormous. 
It  has  been  found  on  experimentation  that 
it  requires  from  200  to  more  than  600  pounds 
of  water,  passing  through  a  plant  in  this 
way,  to  make  one  pound  of  dry  crop. 
These  large  amounts  of  evaporated  water 
show  how  necessary  it  is  to  keep  the  soil  in 
such  a  condition  that  it  will  absorb  the  maximum  amount  of 
rainfall  and  hold  it  to  supply  the  growing  crop.  It  is  also 
necessary  that  these  tiny  root  hairs,  that  are  so  small  that  it 
would  take  300  or  more  laid  side  by  side  to  cover  an  inch  in 
width,  be  able  to  creep  and  grow  always  deeper  and  further 
into  the  soil,  unhindered  by  impacted  soil,  hardpan,  or  other 
obstructions. 


ROOT  HAIRS 


24  VERTICAL     FARMING 

The  roots  do  not  reach  down  to  all  of  the  water  they  use. 
Some  of  it  is  pumped  up  to  them  as  oil  rises  in  a  lamp  wick,  by 
capillary  action.  This  rise  is  much  faster  in  well  granulated 
soils  than  in  hardpan  or  tight  clay.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  no  method  of  cultivation  can  reach  down  deep  enough  to 
overcome  the  difficulties  of  feeding  roots  except  blasting  the 
subsoil  with  explosives. 

Unavailable  Plant  Foods. — Attention  has  already  been 
called  to  the  large  amounts  of  mineral  plant  food  bound  up  in 
insoluble  minerals,  and  to  the  enormous  amount  of  the  highest 
priced  plant  food  (nitrogen)  that  is  present  in  the  air  but  not 
directly  available  to  the  field  crops  as  food.  The  changes  that 
some  of  these  must  undergo  in  order  that  they  can  nourish  the 
roots  are  chemically  very  complex,  but,  in  the  practice  of  the 
art  of  farming,  can  be  well  controlled.  The  nitrogen  must  be 
combined  with  oxygen.  This  change  is  most  effectively  brought 
about  by  a  certain  group  of  bacteria  which  grows  in  knots  on 
the  roots  of  peas,  beans,  clovers,  alfalfa,  and  kindred  plants. 
They  breathe  in  the  free  nitrogen  gas  and  combine  it  with  other 
elements  in  such  a  way  that  large  amounts  are  fixed  and  held 
in  the  soil  in  a  combined  form  that  is  very  nourishing  to  suc- 
ceeding crops  and  also  to  the  crop  with  which  they  grow.  Other 
forms  of  organisms  accomplish  the  same  purpose,  working 
without  the  assistance  of  the  leguminous  associates.  Both  forms 
require  certain  well  defined  conditions  in  which  to  work.  Each 
of  these  is  so  essential  that  it  would  be  hard  to  name  the  more 
important  one.  The  soil  must  be  well  drained  so  that  there  is 
no  clogging  up  of  the  soil  pores  with  water,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  soil  must  be  moist.  The  soils  must  also  be  warm,  for  the 
activities  of  these  wonderful  little  farmers'  aids  are  retarded  if 
stopped  by  frost.  Large  supplies  of  air  are  equally  essential. 
As  most  of  these  conditions  attend  a  deep  tilled  soil,  it  might  be 
said  that  the  beneficial  bacteria  of  the  soil  are  all  deep  tillage 
enthusiasts.  They  are  found  at  considerable  depths  in  the 
porous  types  of  soil,  but  cannot  live  much  below  the  surface  in 
tight  clays  and  hardpan.     They  also  keep  busy  on   insoluble 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


25 


THE  DEEPER  PLANT  FOOD  MIGHT  JUST  AS  WELL  BE  IN  EUROPE  FOR 
ALL   THE   ATTENTION    THAT   IS   USUALLY   GIVEN    IT 


26  VERTICAL     FARMING 

forms  of  combined  nitrogen  that  may  be  added  to  the  soil,  and 
convert  it  into  usable  forms. 

Soil  changes  also  materially  affect  the  availability  of  phos- 
phate material.  In  nature  it  is  always  combined  in  slowly 
soluble  compounds.  In  commercial  fertilizers  it  is  usually  com- 
bined with  lime.  Different  relations  in  the  amount  of  lime  to 
the  phosphorus  effect  the  solubility  of  the  phosphorus.  In 
badly  drained  land  the  phosphorus  is  often  found  combined 
with  iron  in  little  balls  of  "  bog  ore  "  that  are  very  insoluble. 
Many  other  examples  of  combinations  of  plant  foods  could  be 
brought  out  going  further  to  show  how  the  air,  water  and 
bacteria  assist  the  changes.  In  every  case  the  benefits  brought 
about  demand  deep  stirring  of  the  soil,  such  as  is  produced  by 
exploding  small  charges  of  slow  powders  in  the  subsoil  and 
opening  a  way  for  the  liberators  of  plant  food.  No  other 
practical  method  can  bring  about  the  desired  results. 

Deficient  Plant  Food. — If  the  rocks  from  which  a  soil  is 
derived  are  deficient  in  any  needed  food,  it  becomes  imperative 
sooner  or  later  to  add  some  material  that  will  make  up  the 
deficiency.  The  original  and  best  general  fertilizing  material 
is  manure,  as  it  adds  not  only  certain  amounts  of  plant  food, 
but  also  large  amounts  of  humus.  Forest  mould,  litter,  straw, 
and  other  materials  of  like  nature  add  some  of  the  fertilizing 
elements  and  also  humus.  The  number  of  materials  that  may 
be  used  to  add  plant  food  is  great.  Some  materials  carry  but 
one  needed  element,  while  others  carry  two  or  three.  There  can 
be  no  general  rule  promulgated  to  guide  in  choosing  fertilizers, 
as  different  soils  and  different  crops  demand  certain  chemicals 
in  different  forms. 

Soil  Amendment  or  Correction. — Some  soils  well  supplied 
with  mineral  and  organic  plant  foods  have  some  trouble,  such 
as  sourness  or  an  excess  of  alkali.  Materials  not  classed  as 
foods  are  used  in  the  correction  of  such  conditions.  These 
materials  are  generally  known  as  **  Soil  Amendments."  In  the 
correction  of  black  alkali,  gypsum  is  added  to  change  the  sodium 
carbonate  to  a  less  harmful  compound  which  can  more  readily 
be  leached  out. 


VERTICAL    FARMING  27 

The  other  great  amendment  is  lime,  the  chief  use  of  which 
has  been  described  in  the  correction  of  sour  or  acid  soils. 

Use  What  You  Already  Have. — From  the  foregoing  we  see 
that  there  are  supplies  of  practically  afl  the  plant  foods  in 
normal  soils,  and  that  additions  of  fertilizing  materials,  while 
absolutely  essential  in  some  cases,  are  expensive.  Some  of  the 
foods  already  in  the  soil  are  not  in  the  form  needed  by  the  plant, 
but  can  be  changed  into  usable  forms  by  properly  controlled 
natural  agencies.  The  agencies  needed  for  these  changes  are 
always  at  their  best  under  certain  soil  conditions.  For  the 
different  changes  the  conditions  are  identical — a  moist  but 
well  drained  soil,  an  abundant  supply  of  air  in  the  soil,  the  pres- 
ence of  more  or  less  humus,  and  a  suitable  temperature.  To 
obtain  most  of  these  is  easy,  when  we  consider  only  the  soil,  as 
it  can  be  done  with  a  plow,  but  the  surface  is  not  half  of  the 
farm — we  want  to  use  several  feet  of  depth 
for  a  good  reservoir  for  moisture,  a  factory 
to  rework  and  prepare  the  foods,  and  a  good 
home  for  the  roots.  This  naturally  de- 
mands that  the  clay  or  hardpan  be  broken 
up.      The   plow   cannot   sret   down   to   the     ^^^  ^^  ,       ^._,. 

^  ^  ^  SECTION   BREATH- 

trouble  and  there  is  but  one  other  agent  that  ,^,^    ^„^  _„     ,  ^ 

^  .  ING  PORE  OF  A  LEAF 

can  do  the  work— a  reliable  low-freezmg      (greatly  enlarged) 
explosive. 

Making    Fertilizers   More   Effective. — 

Heavy  applications  of  fertilizers  to  force 
bumper  crops  are  attended  with  certain 
dangers.    If  everything  goes  along  all  right, 

,^u  •         ,  1^  r  '   ,  '     SURFACE    VIEW    OF 

and  there  is  always  plenty  of  moisture  to 
dissolve  the  fertilizers  and  prevent  the 
soil  solution  from  becoming  too  rich,  the  desired  results  will  in 
all  probability  follow.  In  most  regions  where  such  fertilization 
is  practised,  such  constant  supplies  of  soil  moisture  are  not 
always  to  be  relied  upon.  The  result  is  that  when  the  young 
plants  get  vigorously  started  on  their  nourishing  ration  and 
then  meet  a  season  of  drouth  they  are  "  scorched  "  or  "  burned  " 


28  VERTICAL    FARMING 

by  the  too  concentrated  food,  and  are  left  in  worse  shape  than  if 
there  had  been  no  f ertiHzation  and  they  had  been  forced  to  draw 
all  their  food  from  the  soil  minerals. 

Even  where  the  conditions  are  normal  rather  than  extreme, 
the  increased  growth  caused  by  the  fertilizer  calls  for  a  greater 
supply  of  moisture  to  support  the  enormous  loss  through  evapo- 
ration from  the  leaves,  and  the  fertilizer  has  in  no  way  met 
the  increased  demand  for  the  water.  The  correction  for  either 
condition  is  simply  the  prevention  of  excessive  amounts  of  the 
water  being  lost  by  drainage  and  holding  it  stored  in  a  deep 
tilled,  open  subsoil.  A  tight  subsoil  will  not  absorb  and  hold 
the  moisture  in  this  way  and  needs  the  welcome  relief  of  a 
small  amount  of  well  placed  explosive  to  shatter  and  open  the 
soil,  so  that  it  can  meet  the  demands  for  more  water. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  in  full  the  conditions  necessary  for  heavy  yields  of 

your  money  crop. 

2.  What  fertilizing  material  is  lacking  in  your  soil,  and  in  what 

form  would  you  supply  the  deficiency  ? 

3.  Do  the  large  brace  and  tap  roots  of  plants  absorb  plant  food 

from  the  soil  ?    What  is  their  duty  ? 

4.  Will  a  large  tree  draw  most  of  its  food  from  the  ground 

immediately  around  the  stump  or  from  the  soil  further 
away  ? 

5.  What  is  the  source  of  the  most  used  chemical  fertilizer  in 

your  community,  and  how   is  it  prepared  before  being 
offered  for  sale? 

6.  What  eflfect  has  lime  on  clover  on  your  farm?    On  wheat? 

How  can  you  prove  your  statement  ? 

7.  Which  shows  wilt  first  during  a  season  of  slight  rainfall,  a 

heavy  or  light  crop  ?    Why  ? 


VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  III 

Soil  Moisture 
ITS  CONTROL  AND  CONSERVATION 

Crops  must  have  sufficient  amounts  of  water  at  the  right 
time.  The  greatest  demand  for  water  is  often  during  the 
season  of  least  supply.  The  water  must  come  from  the  feeding 
zone  of  the  roots  within  the  soil.  No  phase  of  agriculture  is  of 
more  importance  or  worthy  of  more  study  than  how  to  main- 
tain an  adequate  supply  of  soil  moisture.  A  soil  may  be  rich 
In  plant  food  and  not  have  water  enough  to  dissolve  it  and  carry 
it  to  the  plant  roots.  Nothing  reduces  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  the  yields  of  farm  crops  in  the  United  States  annually  more 
than  the  lack  of  a  proper  supply  of  water  at  the  season  when 
the  crops  demand  it.  The  rainfall  may  be  deficient  or  too 
unevenly  distributed  so  that  the  farmer  is  forced  to  store  water 
somewhere  and  in  some  way.  There  are  few  sections  of  the 
country  where  this  is  not  necessary ;  where  there  is  rain  enough 
during  the  growing  season  to  water  the  crops.  They  must  draw 
their  supplies  from  reservoirs  that  are  above  or  below  ground, 
and  the  best  of  all  is  utilizing  the  soil  itself  as  a  reservoir. 

Soil  Water  as  a  Plant  Food. — All  vegetable  matter  consists 
largely  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  which  elements  are  obtained 
from  the  soil  water  and  combined  with  other  elements  in  the 
plant  itself.  These  combinations  of  the  water  forming  elements, 
together  with  a  small  amount  of  carbon  from  the  air,  form  by 
far  the  greater  weight  of  domestic  plants  even  when  they  are 
thoroughly  dried.     Tt  is  the  water  used  as  food  that  makes  up 


30 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


GOOD    TOP    AND    ROOTS    POSSIBLE    ONLY    ON 
A  WELL  DRAINED  SOIL 


VERTICAL    FARMING  31 

the  greater  part  of  all  the  starch,  sugar  and  other  similar  com- 
pounds so  valuable,  in  that  they  form  one  of  the  essential  parts 
of  the  foods  for  men  and  lower  animals. 

Water  as  a  Carrier  of  Plant  Food. — ^AU  of  the  plant  foods 
in  the  soil  have  first  to  be  dissolved  in  water  and  then  carried 
by  it  to  and  through  the  roots  and  up  to  the  above  ground  parts 
of  the  plant.  The  tiny  feeding  roots  must  be  immersed  in  the 
thin  film  of  water  that  clings  to  the  soil  particles.  The  soil 
solution  is  absorbed  into  the  rootlets  through  their  walls  and 
forced  upward  with  a  considerable  pressure.  This  can  easily 
be  noticed  by  cutting  off  a  rank  growing  weed  and  watching 
how  quickly  the  sap  is  thrown  up  over  the  newly  cut  stump. 
This  pressure  is  often  several  pounds  per  square  inch.  All  the 
water  that  is  not  combined  in  the  plant  as  a  part  of  it  is  thrown 
out  through  the  leaves,  this  process  being  called  "  transpira- 
tion." 

If  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil  are  good  and  water  is 
abundant,  transpiration  is  encour.iged  and  there  is  an  attending 
satisfactory  growth  of  crop ;  but  if  the  conditions  are  reversed, 
the  plant  growth  is  immediately  stunted  by  the  deficiency  in  the 
amount  of  the  essential  water. 

Amounts  Necessary  for  Crops. — Taking  crops  altogether, 
from  rice  to  date  palms,  the  amount  of  water  required  varies 
from  complete  submergence  to  almost  perpetual  drouth,  and 
within  this  range  crops  vary  widely  as  to  the  amount  necessary 
for  living.  As  a  rule  the  amount  is  large,  as  it  is  only  the  desert 
plants  that  thrive  on  a  scant  supply.  Take  a  small  potted  plant 
and  place  it  under  a  glass  jar  and  notice  how  soon  the  jar  is 
clouded  by  the  water  vapor  taken  up  from  the  soil  and  given 
off  through  the  leaves.  From  200  to  600  pounds  of  water  are 
transpired  by  ordinary  crops  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter 
produced,  but  this  varies  with  each  crop  according  to  the 
climate  and  other  factors  affecting  it. 

A  good  yield  of  pea  vine  hay  will  draw  1200  to  1500  tons  of 
water  through  its  roots  and  stems  and  liberate  it  in  the  air.  Corn 
and  cane  drew  equally  heavily  upon  the  soil  supply  of  moisture. 


32  V  ERTICAL     FARM  I  N  G 

The  water  required  by  a  field  of  any  of  the  ordinary  field  cro])S, 
if  spread  over  the  surface,  would  cover  it  to  a  depth  of  sever^il 
inches,  sometimes  as  much  as  a  foot  or  more.  This  is  only  the 
water  used  by  the  plant  itself,  and  does  not  include  the  amount 
that  is  lost  by  being  evaporated  or  that  passing  too  deep  into  the 
soil  to  be  drawn  back  to  the  roots.  In  addition,  a  plant  cannot 
take  all  of  the  moisture  out  of  the  soil  in  the  range  of  its  roots. 
In  irrigated  districts  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  and 
absorbed  by  the  soil*  often  reaches  an  amount  equal  to  three 
feet,  and  in  some  localities  more. 

This  water  used  by  the  plant  or  lost  by  evaporation  from  the 
soil  during  rainless  days  must  all  come  from  the  soil,  and  shows 
what  care  must  be  exercised  in  storing  and  holding  all  that  is 
possible. 

Water  and  Soil  Temperature. — A  uniform  soil  temperature 
is  essential  to  the  best  growth  of  crops,  and  a  soil  properly  sup- 
plied with  moisture  will  change  its  temperature  very  slowly, 
while  a  dry,  parched  soil  will  quickly  heat  up  during  the  day  and 
cool  off  again  as  rapidly  at  night,  and  the  crops  will  suffer 
accordingly.  Coarse  soils  retain  only  a  relatively  small  amount 
of  moisture  and  are  warm  and  early.  Fine  soils,  like  the  clays, 
retain  much  more  water  and  are  cooler  and  later  in  the  spring. 

Storing  Water. — Where  irrigation  is  practised,  reservoirs 
are  used  to  store  and  hold  water,  but  in  most  of  the  states  this 
method  is  inadvisable.  The  best  place  to  store  the  water  for 
use  in  time  of  drouth  is  in  the  soil  itself,  by  converting  the  sub- 
soil of  every  acre  into  its  own  reservoir.  This  large  storage 
may  be  assisted  and  encouraged  in  several  ways.  The  first  thing 
to  do  is  to  be  sure  to  get  the  rain  water  down  into  the  soil 
instead  of  allowing  it  to  be  wasted  by  running  off  on  the  sur- 
face, because  it  cannot  enter  a  hard  or  impacted  soil  readily,  if 
at  all.  Such  soils  may  be  found  to  be  dry  even  after  a  heavy 
rain.  In  ''  dry  farming,"  and  also  in  farming  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavier,  some  practise  rough  plowing  before  the  seasons  of 
heavy  rain  to  increase  the  absorption  of  rain  water,  and  later 
harrow  or  drag  the  surface  to  form  a  mulch  and  prevent  loss 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


33 


U.  S.  Rec.  Service 
IRRIGATION   DAM- 


-THE   EXPENSIVE    METHOD  OF   STORING   WATER 
FOR  PLANTS 


through  evaporation.  Where  this  practice  has  been  carefully 
followed,  good  has  resulted,  but  ordinarily  the  depth  to  which 
plowing  is  possible  is  insufficient  to  reach  the  zone  of  the  great- 
est trouble.  Others  have  gone  further  and  plowed  deeper,  using 
heavy  tractors  with  subsoil  plows.  The  results  obtained  have 
been  variable,  and  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  efforts  along  this 
line,  while  well  conceived  and  of  benefit,  have  fallen  short  of 
their  mark  by  not  disturbing  the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth. 

In  most  cases  of  resistant  soils,  the  trouble  is  at  a  considerable 
depth,  in  fact,  below  the  depth  that  could  possibly  be  reached 
by  any  form  of  plow.  For  relief  then,  there  is  nothing  prac- 
ticable but  a  rational  use  of  a  subsoiling  explosive.  This,  like 
the  subsoil  plow,  is  used  when  the  subsoil  is  dry,  so  that  the 
force  of  the  explosion  will  shatter  and  pulverize  the  subsoil 
rather  than  pack  it  into  a  more  impervious  mass.  Usually  this 
is  in  the  late  summer  and  early   fall,  when  the  plants  have 


34 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


pumped  all  of  the  available  water  out  of  the  soil.  This  season 
is  followed  by  the  fall  and  the  winter  rains  which  can  then 
find  their  way  deep  into  the  cracks  and  fissures  where  they  are 
absorbed  and  held  indefinitely  if  proper  care  is  given  to  the  sur- 
face. The  heavy  rains  following  such  a  shattering  of  the  sub- 
soil have  the  additional  advantage  of  resettling  any  parts  of 
the  soil  where  the  explosion  may  have  opened  it  up  too  much. 
In  the  spring  and  summer  following  such  a  soil  treatment,  the 
young  roots  find  an  easy  path  into  the  deeper  soil,  where  they 
can  continue  to  draw  their  full  ration  of  water  from  the  stored 
supply  and  thus  nourish  the  crop  during  long  seasons  of  drouth. 


SUBSOIL  SHATTERED   BY   A   BLAST THE   CHEAP   WAY   OF   STORING 

WATER   FOR   PLANTS. 


Excesses  of  Water  Must  be  Drained  Away. — Field  plants 
will  not  grow  in  a  soil  saturated  with  water.  An  ample  supply 
is  necessary  and  must  be  maintained,  but  a  great  deal  depends 
on  how  the  supply  is  kept  up,  or  in  other  words,  on  the  moisture 
condition.  Land  animals  require  water  to  drink,  but  perish  if 
immersed  in  it,  for  the  air  necessary  for  their  existence  is  then 
shut  off.  Plant  roots  die  if  the  soil  is  saturated  with  water 
because  their  air  is  cut  off.  Fortunately,  soil  will  hold  only  a 
certain  amount  of  moisture  if  the  water  is  free  to  move,  the 
excess  gravitating  downward  and  draining  away.  This  is 
called  gravity  of  free  water.  The  gravity  water  sinks  until  met 
and  checked  by  impervious  material  or  reaches  standing  water ; 
that  is  the  water  table.  Unless  such  free  water  sinks  too  deep, 
it  is  not  entirely  lost  to  the  plant,  as  it  not  only  sinks  through 
gravity,  but  is  also  brought  back  to  higher  levels,  when  the  top 
soil  begins  to  dry,  by  capillary  attraction,  just  as  water  climbs 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


35 


up  a  piece  of  cloth,  one  end  of  which  is  allowed  to  hang  in  water. 
This  capillary  water  is  the  water  that  supplies  the  immediate 
demands  of  the  plant.  Some  of  the  water  collects  on  the  surface 
of  each  soil  particle  and  sticks  to  it  with  a  peculiar  force,  form- 
ing a  film  over  the  soil  grain.  This  *'  Film  Water  "  is  very 
important,  for  the  force  that  holds  it  so  closely  to  the  grains 
enables  it  to  dissolve  the  mineral  plant  foods  in  the  particle  and 
prepare  them  for  absorption  by  the  roots. 

Air  Must  Circulate  in  the  Soil. — The  air  in  the  soil  is  as 
essential  to  plant  growth  as  the  air  above  the  soil.  This  soil 
atmosphere  below  the  surface  is  heavier  than  the  air  above,  and 
contains  more  carbon  dioxide  and  similar  compounds  than  our 
atmosphere.  These  gases  are  absorbed  into  the  soil  water  and 
become  a  part  of  the  attacking  force  that  liberates  the  mineral 
foods  from  the  dense  minerals.     The  nitrogen  supply  of  the 


CYPRESS   ROOTS   THROW   UP        KNEES       THROUGH    WHICH   TO 

BREATHE.      FIELD   CROPS   CANNOT  DO  THIS   SO  THE 

EXCESS  OF  MOISTURE  MUST  BE  DRAINED  AWAY 


36  .         VERTICAL    FARMING 

legumes  is  also'  drawn  from  the  soil  air.  This  air  circulates 
through  voids  or  pores  which  are  stopped  up  by  excesses  of 
free  water  that  cannot  drain  away.  Such  a  condition  stops 
the  actions  just  described,  and  must  be  guarded  against  by 
keeping  free  water  drained  away  from  the  active  feeding  zone 
of  the  roots.  When  the  water  table  is  within  the  reach  of  the 
deeper  roots,  small  feeders  are  sent  down  to  or  near  the  water 
surface  and  drawn  from  the  moister  soil  there. 

Cultivation  and  Yields. — The  easiest  soil  to  plow  or  cultivate 
is  one  that  has  all  excesses  of  free  water  drained  away,  and  has 
dried  a  little  so  that  it  will  crumble  rather  than  break  in  lumps. 
A  wet,  soggy  soil  is  not  only  hard  to  cultivate,  but  the  very  act 
of  working  it  injures  instead  of  being  a  benefit.  The  air  is 
worked  out,  and  the  air  spaces  themselves  are  closed  by  the 
process,  and  the  granulation  is  destroyed.  A  very  dry  soil 
breaks  up  cloddy,  and  the  condition  produced  by  plowing  it 
when  it  is  in  this  condition  is  sometimes  nearly  as  bad  as  if  it 
had  been  plowed  wet.  The  proper  storage  of  capillary  moisture 
by  good  cultivation  is  the  only  safeguard  to  maintaining  the 
proper  tilth  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent  ptiddling  or  the  forma- 
tion of  clods. 

The  aim  of  the  farmer  is  to  produce  crops  at  a  profit.  Water 
is  the  cheapest  article  he  has  to  handle,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
one  that  allows  itself  to  be  handled  almost  at  will,  but  becomes 
a  serious  drawback  if  allowed  to  take  its  own  way.  It  must  be 
there  as  a  food  and  a  carrier  of  other  foods,  as  a  control  of 
the  temperature  of  the  soil,  and  to  insure  the  proper  granu- 
lation of  the  soil.  Everything  that  can  be  done  to  the  soil  in  the 
way  of  getting  rid  of  excesses  of  free  water  and  holding  the 
maximum  of  capillary  water  will  make  itself  known  in  the 
increased  yields  it  aflfords. 

Erosion. — Erosion  or  washing  steals  plant  food.  If  bad,  it 
takes  the  whole  of  the  surface  soil  away.  An  excess  of  water 
often  causes  damage  by  erosion.  In  addition  to  taking  away 
valuable  plant  food  and  the  cultivated  top  soil,  erosion  leaves 
the  fields  cut  up  and  rough  and  exposes  material  that  requires 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


37 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


A  BADLY  ERODED  HILL 


much  effort  and  long  exposure  to  weathering  before  the  plant 
food  reaches  a  satisfactory  state  of  availability.  Gentle,  slow 
rains  are  always  preferable,  because  they  have  more  time  to 
soak  into  the  soil,  but  as  the  intensity  of  rainfall  is  beyond  the 
control  of  the  farmer,  he  must  fortify  his  soil  against  attacks 
of  erosion  due  to  heavy  precipitation  or  large  amounts  of  rain- 
fall in  a  short  time.  The  answer  is  to  get  the  water  down  into 
the  soil  before  it  can  run  off.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  do  this  in 
a  big  wash,  where  thousands  of  barrels  of  watier  are  coming 
down,  but  these  large  washes  are  started  by  little  trickles  of 
only  a  few  spoonfuls  further  up  the  hill.  These  little  trickles 
start  because  the  soil  is  too  tight  for  the  water  to  enter.  The 
surface  ma}^  be  sealed  over  by  a  little  crust  or  there  may  be 
plow  sole,  tight  clay,  or  hardpan  deeper  down  which  limits  the 
soils  absorption  to  the  immediate  surface.  The  correction  of 
such  conditions  prevents  the  wasting  of  the  valuable  soil  into  the 
drainage  courses.  The  surface  crust  can  be  destroyed  with 
even  the  lightest  tools,  and  a  deep  shattering  by  blasting  will 
open  up  the  subsoil  so  that  it  will  be  able  to  absorb  hundred  of 
gallons  of  water,  where  before  it  took  but  sparingly. 


38 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


CU'mson  College  S.  C.  Bulletin 

EXPENSIVE  TERRACING  TO   PREVENT  EROSION 


Drainage. — Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  neces- 
sity of  removing  all  excesses  of  free  v^^ater.  Where  such 
excesses  are  caused,  as  they  so  frequently  are,  by  the  water 
being  held  on  or  near  the  surface  by  hardpan  or  other  imper- 
vious material  below^,  the  trouble  may  be  overcome  by  breaking 
through  the  holding  material  into  more  open  material  belov^. 
The  full  extent  of  the  possibilities  of  this  method  of  drainage 
have  not  yet  been  developed,  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  many  of 
the  upland  sw^amps  will  later  be  entirely  controlled  by  this 
method. 

A  more  rapid  development  of  the  larger  swamp  areas  has 
been  retarded  on  account  of  the  great  expense  of  ditch  digging 
by  hand  or  by  the  machines  suitable  for  digging  under  such 
conditions.  Again,  a  rational  use  of  dynamite  has  answered 
the  question,  for  it  has  been  absolutely  proven  by  experimenta- 
tion and  practical  application  on  large  and  small  drainage  areas 
that  ditches  can  be  quickly,  economically  and  satisfactorily 
excavated  by  blasting.  The  wet  soils  of  the  swamps  and  over- 
flowed regions  have  made  digging  by  hand  expensive  on  account 
of  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  labor,  but  swamp  water  has 
no  terror  for  the  swift  cutting  action  of  a  high  power  dynamite 
that  will  rip  open  a  long  stretch  of  large  or  small  ditch  at  one 
efifort.     Such  a  blast  not  only  opens  the  ditch,  but  levels  down 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


39 


the  harmful  spoil  pile. or  bank,  scattering  the  dirt  over  the 
adjoining  land  for  a  distance  of  over  a  hundred  feet. 


A    BEAL  ilFLL    liLASitU    DliCH 


Ditch  blasting  is  by  no  means  limited  to  wet  lands,  for  it  is 
being  successfully  used  in  excavating  even  in  dry  hill  soil,  pro- 
vided it  is  not  sandy.  Changes  in  the  soil  or  the  soil  condition 
require  changes  in  the  selection  of  the  explosive  and  the  method 
of  loading,  which  are  details  that  can  best  be  learned  from  the 
books  of  practical  instruction  of  the  manufacturer  or  from  one 
of  their  representatives. 

The  use  of  blasting  in  connection  with  drainage  is  not  limited 
to  the  shattering  of  deep  drainage  courses  to  permit  of  down- 
ward drainage,  but  is  being  used  largely  in  connection  with 
open  and  blind  ditches  where  the  subsoil  is  so  hard  that  it  pre- 
vents the  passage  of  the  water  into   ihe  drainage  channels. 


40  VERTICAL     FARMING 

Thorough  subsoil  blasting  opens  up  these  subsoils  and  permits 
the  drains  to  collect  and  carry  away  the  water  that  has  rendered 
the  fields  worthless. 

Dynamite  and  farm  powders  are  also  being  used  to  control 
old-established  gullies  or  washes.  The  banks  are  shot  down 
into  the  bottom  of  the  gully  so  that  teams  can  be  driven  across 
to  plow  the  banks  down  to  the  desired  level.  This  shattering 
also  loosens  deeply  and  increases  the  immediate  absorption  of 
water  and  benefits  further  by  holding  out  of  the  surface  drain- 
age much  of  the  water  that  before  increased  the  run  off  and 
attending  erosion. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  amount  of  the  annual  rainfall  in  your  part  of  the 

state  ? 

2.  How  is  this  distributed  during  the  year? 

3.  Which  of  your  crops  suffer  most  from  lack  of  water ?    Why? 

4.  Describe  your  ideal  method  of  storing  water  on  your  farm 

for  the  use  of  crops? 

5.  What  have  been  your  experiences  with  deep  plowing? 

6.  What  is  your  method  of  controlling  erosion,  and  what  results 

have  you  obtained? 

7.  What  modifications  in  your  practice  of  controlling  erosion 

do  you  think  necessary? 

8.  Describe  an  ideal  plan   for  the  general   drainage  of  your 

farm,  that  will  include  the  control  of  the  hill  water  as  well 
as  that  of  the  bottoms. 

9.  What  is  the  best  method  of  correcting  a  small  stream  that 

has  a  crooked,  shallow  bed? 


VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  IV 

Soil  Bacteria 

The  most  constantly  active  part  of  the  soil  is  its  bacterial  life. 
These  are  tiny  little  plants  that  are  very  close  to  the  border  line 
of  being  animals,  and  are  known  by  a  number  of  popular  and 
slang  names.  They  are  the  smallest  known  living  organisms. 
Some  are  so  small  that  50,000  of  them  lying  side  by  side  would 
not  measure  over  an  inch,  and  a  single  drop  of  blood  or  milk 
would  form  a  desirable  tenement  for  thousands  to  live  in  and 
multiply.  They  reproduce  very  rapidly,  usually  in  from  15  to 
45  minutes.  If  unchecked,  a  single  bacterium  could  multiply 
to  17,000,000  in  24  hours.  This  reproduction  is  seriously 
checked  by  lack  of  room,  insufficient  food  and  unfavorable  sur- 
roundings, such  as.  lack  of  air  or  too  much  water  for  some 
and  the  reverse  for  others.  They  are  also  checked  in  their 
development  by  the  presence  of  their  own  excreta.  They  form 
spores  for  their  reproduction  and  for  preservation  and  distribu- 
tion. In  the  spore  stage  they  can  live  over  long  periods  of  con- 
ditions unfavorable  for  their  growth  and  reproduction,  and 
then  begin  their  work  again  when  conditions  are  favorable. 
The  total  number  of  bacteria  is  inconceivable,  for  they  are  in 
the  air,  water,  soil,  and  everywhere. 

Some  of  them  are  harmful,  and  their  development  should  be 
checked,  while  others  are  so  helpful  to  mankind  that  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  encourage  their  growth.  The  different 
forms  require  widely  different  conditions  for  their  best  growth. 
One  class  thrives  in  an  abundant  supply  of  air,  and  are  called 
"  aerobic."    Another  form,  "  anaerobic,"  get  their  oxygen  from 


42 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


different  forms  of  bacteria 
(greatly  enlarged) 


breaking  down  compounds  containing  this  element  and  thriv.e 
best  in  places  that  are  not  well  ventilated.     The  first  named 

form  includes  the  beneficial 
forms  of  soil  organisms,  while 
those  of  the  second  class  are 
usually  harmful.  The  very 
cultivation  and  aeration  of  the 
soil,  therefore,  promotes  the 
growth  of  the  beneficial  forms 
and  checks  the  activities  of  the 
harmful  ones.  The  deeper  the 
soil  is  loose  and  well  a-erated, 
the  deeper  the  helpful  forms 
are  found. 

Harmful  Bacteria. — Some 
forms  of  bacteria  produce  de- 
structive diseases  in  the  plants, 
both  in  the  tops  and  branches  and  in  the  roots.  The  greatest 
trouble  from  bacteria  in  the  soil,  however,  comes  from  the 
forms  that  attack  the  nitrogen  carrying  foods  and  cause  the 
nitrogen  to  be  unlocked  from  its  combined  form  and  to  escape 
as  gas.  These  forms  thrive  best  in  wet  and  packed  soil, 
where  they  cause  the  organic  substances  to  undergo  a  waste- 
ful putrefaction  rather  than  a  beneficial  decay.  Their  ac- 
tivities are  at  once  checked  by  the  presence  of  free  air.  Some 
crops  grown  continuously  on  the  same  soil  for  a  long  time 
cause  it  to  become  filled  with  forms  that  cause  diseases  in  the 
roots.  Generally  these  can  be  destroyed  by  a  rotation  of 
crops  attended  with  deep  tillage. 

"  In  short  the  control  of  harmful  soil  organism  is  accom- 
plished by  thorough  drainage  and  good,  deep  cultivation.  Many 
of  them  seem  to  thrive  best  in  sour  soils  which  can  be  made 
sweet  and  desirable  for  the  beneficial  forms  by  additions  of  lime. 

Beneficial  Organisms. — Bacterial  action  is  beneficial  to 
agriculture  in  many  ways.  As  soon  as  a  plant  or  animal  dies, 
the  influences  that  have  restrained  the  action  of  the  organisms 
of  decay  are  removed  and  the  bacteria  at  once  begin  breaking 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


43 


down  the  complex  organic  substances  into  forms  that  are 
again  suitable  for  plant  food.  In  this  way  they  are  the  health 
patrol,  the  scavengers  of  the  soil.  Some  forms  have  the  power 
of  liberating  food  from  the  insoluble  mineral  soil  grains  and 
are  the  fairy  chemists  whose  laboratory  is  the  surface  of  the 
soil  particles.  These  soil  builders  have  already  been  described 
elsewhere  is  these  articles. 

In  fact  there  are  millions  of  these  tiny  forms  that  are  eager 
and  willing  to  assist  the  farmer  and  gardener  if  given  proper 
soil  atmosphere,  proper  soil  moisture,  and  proper  soil  temper- 
ature. 

Nitrogen  Fixing  Bacteria. — Attention  has  been  called  to  the 
likelihood  of  a  deficiency  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  and  the  high 
cost  of  replenishing  the  supply  through  the  use  of  expensive 
fertilizing  materials.  Certain  of  the  air-loving  bacteria  form 
little  colonies,  called  nodules,  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants 
and  take  the  free  gaseous  nitrogen  of  the  soil  air  and  tie  it  up 
in  compounds  that  furnish  the  nitrogen  fertilizer  to  the  higher 
forms  of  plants.  These 
bacteria  do  not  thrive  in 
either  a  wet  or  a  sour  soil, 
and  are  not  found  naturally 
in  the  soils  of  many  parts 
of  the  country.  They  can 
be  planted  or  started  in 
such  soils  by  the  use  of 
certain  commercial  cul- 
tures, or  by  additions  of 
soil  in  which  they  are 
known  to  be  present.  Abun- 
dant supplies  of  these  bac- 
teria are  necessary  in  the 
soil  before  it  is  possible  to 
get  a  good  growth  of  the 
most     beneficial     legumes 

without  robbing  the  soil  of  nodules  on  roots  of  a 

the  supply  of  nitrogen  al-  legume 


44 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


ready  present  in  a  properly  combined  form.  Even  in  soils  rich  in 
nitrogen  the  growth  of  these  crops  is  materially  benefited  by  the 
presence  of  the  bacteria. 

Other  forms  of  bacteria  and  kindred  plants  of  microscopic 
size  have  the  power  of  gathering  bacteria  from  the  soil  air  and 
their  development  should  also  be  encouraged.  These  forms  are 
not  so  well  known  as  those  that  produce  the  nodules  on  the 
roots,  but  their  benefits  are  marked.  They  demand  a  well 
drained  and  well  aerated  soil. 

Helping  a  Friend  Along. — Aside  from  the  nodule  forming 
bacteria,  most  of  the  other  beneficial  forms  are  found  in  all 
normal  soils.  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  them  in  artificial  cult- 
ures, but  their  activities  can  be  materially  increased  by  keeping 
them  in  suitable  surroundings  and  supplying  their  constant  but 
simple  desires.  These  forms  get  their  oxygen  from  the  air, 
and  must  therefore  not  be  closed,  up  in  a  tightly  sealed  soil. 
They  do  not  thrive  in  the  deep  subsoil  unless  it  is  well  aerated. 
Large  excesses  of  water  that  clog  up  the  pores  of  the  soil  also 


SWAMP    CONDITIONS    OR    EXCESSIVE    AMOUNTS    OF    WATER    SEAL 
THE  SURFACE  AND  STOP  BENEFICIAL  BACTERIAL  ACTION 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


45 


exclude  the  air  and  smother  out  the  good  forms,  but  permit  the 
harmful  bacteria  to  grow  at  will.  While  too  much  water  is 
bad  for  them,  too  little  water  also  retards  their  work.  A  good 
moist  soil,  just  about  what  the  plants  want,  is  their  favorite 
— in  short,  a  well  drained  soil.  Most  of  them  need  a  supply  of 
organic  matter,  such  as  partly  decayed  plants  or  animals.  This 
is  also  just  what  the  plants  want.  Another  one  of  their  desires 
is  for  even  tempered  soil,  where  the  changes  are  not  too  sudden 
from  hot  to  cold.  Here  again  they  agree  absolutely  with  the 
plants.  In  fact  the  beneficial  bacteria  and  plants  seem  to  be 
such  good  friends  and  neighbors  that  anything  that  benefits  one 
equally  benefits  the  other,  and  if  one  feels  sick,  the  other  wants 
the  doctor  also. 

In  keeping  up  the  bacterial  activities  care  in  turning  under 
green  manures  or  additions  of  litter  or  manure  is  always  repaid 
many  fold.  These  additions  of  humus  forming  material  also 
assist  greatly  in  maintaining  the  needed  moisture  supply  as 
humus  has  a  wonderful  power  of  absorbing  and  holding  water 
and  also  assists  in  granulating  the  soil. 

More  About  Nitrogen. — Free  nitrogen  is  everywhere.  The 
air  over  a  single  acre  contains  about  75,000,000  pounds  of  this 
peculiar  element.    To  buy  a  pound  will  cost  from  15  to  20  cents. 


TWO   SOURCES   OF   NITROGEN 
HOME  TRAPPED  BY  LEGUMES BOUGHT  AT  GREAT  COST 


46  VERTICAL     FARMING 

The  farmer,  through  his  good  Httle  friends,  the  "  bugs,"  traps 
and  stores  this  in  his  soil,  provided  he  goes  about  it  in  a  business- 
Hke  way. 

This  way  is  simple.  Prepare  the  soil  for  the  best  content  of 
moisture  and  air,  and  see  that  it  is  not  sour.  Be  sure  that  the 
right  bacteria  are  present,  and  then  grow  deep  rooted  legumes 
that  suit  the  locality  best.  Selections  of  legumes  can  be  made 
for  practically  any  purpose.  Some  of  them  yield  the  most 
nutritious  hay,  while  others  furnish  grain  that  is  good  for  food 
for  both  man  and  all  kinds  of  farm  animals.  Others  furnish 
excellent  pasture.  Some  are  best  suited  for  soil  building  in  the 
shape  of  green  manure. 

The  deeper  the  preparation  of  the  soil  the  better  the  results 
that  are  obtained.  A  few  inches  of  loose  soil  will  give  just  so 
much  room  for  these  activities.  A  few  inches  more  will  be  of 
benefit,  but  the  desired  production  cannot  be  reached  until  the 
air-loving  bacteria  and  the  deep-rooted  plants  have  several  feet 
of  good  mellow  soil  in  which  to  operate.  The  only  satisfactory 
method  of  effecting  such  deep  tillage  is  by  blasting. 


48  VERTICAL     FARMING 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  the  changes  due  to  the  rotting  of  a  plant  or  animal  under 

water  the  same  as  rotting  in  the  air  ? 

2.  What  are  the  most  noticeable  differences  you  have  detected 

in  the  two  kinds  of  rotting? 

3.  What  are  five  beneficial  effects  of  bacteria  on  the  farm? 

4.  What  are  five  harmful  effects  of  bacteria  on  the  farm? 

5.  How  would  you  prepare  a  bottom  having  a  cold,  wet  subsoil, 

and  drained  by  a  deep  open  ditch,  for  growing  ordinary 
field  crops? 

6.  How  would  you  prepare  a  tight  hillside  subsoil,  low  in  lime, 

for  growing  alfalfa? 


VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  V 

The  Movement  of  Moisture  and  the 
Feeding  Zone  of  Roots 

The  movement  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance to  plants.  It  is  first  necessary  that  the  water  received 
from  rain  or  irrigation  should  move  downward  through  the 
soil,  leaving  behind  only  such  as  is  held  by  capillary  attraction. 
The  excess  should  move  out  of  the  soil  and  into  the  drainage. 
This  movement  of  moisture  is  entirely  one  of  gravity.  Water 
moving  in  this  way  is  called  "  free  water." 

Movement  of  Water  by  Gravity. — In  order  to  get  the  water 
down  into  the  subsoil  and  prevent  its  running  away  as  surface 
drainage,  or  standing  on  the  surface  and  stopping  all  possi- 
bilities of  air  circulation  through  the  soil  pores,  it  is  essential 
that  it  move  downward  very  soon  after  it  is  deposited  on  the 
surface.  This  movement  depends  on  the  openness  of  the  soil. 
Sometimes  in  a  sandy  soil  the  water  soaks  into  the  soil  too 
rapidly  and  too  much  drains  away,  but  such  is  not  the  case  with 
clay  and  other  dense  soils.  In  such  soils  the  pores  are  naturally 
small  and  the  water  is  held  back.  The  movement  can  be 
hastened  by  tilling  or  stirring  the  soil  to  the  depth  to  which  it 
is  desirable  to  carry  the  water.  The  deeper  this  can  be  made 
effective  the  better,  and  so  it  is  very  apparent  that  soils  where 
the  water  is  likely  to  stand  on  the  surface  are  in  need  of  the 
deepest  practical  tillage.  As  the  free  water  clogs  the  pores  and 
stops  many  of  the  soil  processes,  the  plants  do  not  draw  their 
moisture  from  it,  but  get  it  instead  from  the  smaller  capillary 
supply  left  behind. 


50 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


Movement  of  Capillary  Water. — The  capillary  or  film  move- 
ment of  moisture  takes  place  in  all  directions,  but  its  most 
important  direction  is  upward.  When  tight  soils  prevent  the 
downward  percolation  of  free  water,  some  is  carried  downward 
by  this  pull  which  has  been  described  elsewhere  as  the  same 
movement  as  the  oil  moving  in  a  wick.    As  the  amount  of  moist- 


FALUNG  or 


TWO  EXAMPLES  OF  CAPILLARITY 


ure  that  is  held  by  capillarity  is  limited  and  if  not  replenished, 
the  supply  within  reach  of  the  roots  may  soon  be  exhausted. 
This  available  supply  is  partially  maintained  by  the  upward 
movement  of  capillary  water.  As  one  point  becomes  dry,  the 
water  is  drawn  from  below  by  a  constant  pull  on  the  thin  film. 
When  capillary  water  moves  from  the  more  abundant  supply 
below,  it  brings  with  it  soluble  plant  foods  to  assist  in  nourish- 
ing the  plant. 

The  movement  of  capillary  water  is  efifected  by  several  con- 
ditions.. It  is  governed  very  largely  by  the  texture  of  the  soil. 
The  finer  the  soil  and  the  more  surface  the  soil  particles  expose, 
and  the  more  points  of  contact  between  the  particles,  the  greater 
is  the  pull.  For  example,  a  heavy  clay  soil  containing  20  per 
cent,  of  moisture  may  draw  water  from  a  coarse  sand  contain- 
ing only  10  per  cent.  Sandy  or  coarse  soils  move  water  very 
rapidly  and  in  large  amounts,  but  the  movement  in  such  soils 
cannot  take  place  over  long  distances.    With  clay,  which  has  a 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


51 


much  stronger  capillary  pull,  the  movement  is  much  slower, 
but  may  take  place  over  greater  distances  against  gravity.  The 
amount  of  moisture  moved  in  this  way  decreases  as  the  limit 
of  distance  is  reached. 

In  addition  to  the  texture,  the  structure  of  a  soil  has  an  im- 
portant part  in  governing  the  capillary  movement.  The  better 
granulated  a  heavy  soil,  the  greater  the  pore  space  and  conse- 
quently the  greater  the  pull.  Additions  of  humus  materially 
increase  the  capillary  pull  as  well  as  the  reservoir  capacity  of  a 
soil.  In  a  puddled  soil  the  movement  is  very  slow  and  the 
amount  of  water  moved  very  small.  The  denser  the  soil  be- 
comes, the  slower  the  movement. 

Dry  layers  of  soil  break  off  the  capillary  pull  on  account  of 
the  coating  of  the  soil  particles  being  of     ^_______^.^_„^_ 

such  a  nature  that  they  resist  wetting.     It 
is  this  fact  that  makes  the  effectiveness  of  a 
dry  dust  mulch,  in  holding  the  water  below 
the  surface  and  not  allowing  it  to  rise  to  the 
surface  and  be  lost  by  evaporation.     Capil- 
lary movement  is  much   faster  in  wet  or 
moist  soils  than  in  dry  ones,  so  it  is  advis- 
able at  all  times  to  preserve  some  moisture 
in  the  soil  if  only  for  its  benefits  in  a  rapid     the  capillary 
equalization  of  the  moisture  content  when   rise  of  moisture 
water  is  applied.     The  ratio  of  the  move-      checked  by  a 
ment  in  wet  and  dry  soils  has  been  shown       dust   mulch 
to  be  as  high  as  i  to  4. 

This  upward  movement  continues  to  the  surface  and  when 
allowed  to  go  unchecked  will  result  in  all  the  movable  moisture 
being  pulled  up  and  lost  by  evaporation.  The  rate  of  evapora- 
tion of  moisture  from  the  surface  is  governed  largely  by  tem- 
perature and  wind  velocity.  When  water  is  stored  at  great 
depths  in  the  soil  it  is  harder  for  it  to  be  pulled  to  the  surface 
and  lost.  This  surface  loss  at  times  approximates  an  amount 
equal  to  a  sheet  of  water  5  inches  deep,  over  the  whole  surface 
in  a  month.  A  handy  example  of  the  upward  movement  of 
water  and  a  check  to  its  loss  can  be  observed  by  turning  over  an 


52 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


old  log  or  plank  that  is  lying  on  the  ground  and  noticing  the 
large  amount  of  water  in  the  soil  immediately  underneath. 

The  Feeding  Zone  of  Roots. — The  root  systems  of  plants 
require  as  ample  room  in  which  to  develop  as  does  the  stalk  and 
leaf  system  above.  Roots  must  both  anchor  the  plant  in  place 
and  reach  down  for  food  and  water.  The  feeding  zone  of  a 
plant  determines  the  amount  and  value  of  the  top.  The  soil 
must  be  cultivated  in  order  to  provide  a  proper  feeding  zone, 
for  the  earth  in  its  natural  condition  will  not  yield  as  abundantly 
as  well  cultivated  soil.    Just  below  a  good  surface  mulch  in  a 

well  cultivated  field  we  find 
moist  soil  full  of  roots  revel- 
ling in  an  ideal  feeding  zone. 
On  an  adjoining  uncultivated 
field  one  must  dig  down  to  find 
moist  soil,  and  discovers  only 
a  few  roots  feeding  in  a  mea- 
ger compact  feeding  zone. 
Rootlets  are  ever  pushing  into 
fresh  soil  zones  where  more 
water  and  food  are  to  be 
found,  yet  the  feeding  zone 
in  ordinary  farming  is  con- 
fined largely  to  the  shallow 
depths  of  the  plowed  furrow, 
simply  because  it  is  the  only 
warm,  mellow,  well  ventilated 
soil  within  the  reach  of  the 
roots.  When  given  a  chance, 
feeding  roots  advance  rapidly 
to  meet  the  capillary  rise  of  soil  moisture,  and  the  energetic 
way  in  which  they  go  down  and  search  in  every  direction  for 
food  and  water  proves  them  to  be  highly  organized  parts  of 
the  plant  and  possessed  of  instinct  or  something  akin  to  intelli- 
gence. Plants  having  large  or  active  root  systems,  making 
a  rapid  growth,  remove  more  water  and  more  plant  food  from 
the  soil  in  a  given  time  than  those  with  a   small  system  or 


PECAN    ROOTS   FROM    BLASTED 
AND   TIGHT    SOIL 


ROOTS  GOING  DOWN   FOR   FOOD   AND  WATER. 

BETTER. 


THE  DEEPER  THE 


54  V  ERT  I  C  AL     F  ARM  I  N  G 

sluggish  action.  A  corn  crop  when  in  the  season  of  most 
vigorous  growth  will  remove  more  water  from  the  soil  in 
a  day  than  will  a  crop  of  wheat.  Some  crops  are  slow,  weak 
feeders,  while  others  feed  ravenously,  and,  while  taking  up 
more  substance,  may  be  able  to  overcome  more  unfavorable 
conditions.  Roots  should  be  thrown  down  into  the  soil  as  far  as 
possible  in  order  to  get  away  from  danger  of  drouth,  and 
excesses  of  temperature,  as  well  as  from  injury  by  cultivating 
machinery. 

The  desirable  conditions  for  a  root  system  can  be  improved 
by  thorough  cultivation  of  the  subsoil,  much  deeper  than  any 
plow  can  go,  by  means  of  explosives.  They  loosen  up  the  soils 
so  that  the  roots  are  not  checked  in  going  downward,  the  rise  of 
capillary  water  is  aided,  aeration  is  improved,  and  deep  reser- 
voirs of  water  made  accessible.  This  method  more  than  doubles 
the  depth  of  the  feeding  zone. 

Depths  to  Which  Roots  Go. — The  natural  tendency  of  most 
roots  is  to  go  deep  into  the  soil.  Many  who  have  not  investi- 
gated this  subject  believe  that  roots  do  not  go  deeper  than  one 
or  two  feet  and  cutivate  accordingly.  On  the  contrary,  they  go 
to  much  greater  depths  if  the  soil  conditions  permit.  Corn 
roots  that  have  been  confined  and  have  occupied  all  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  2  feet,  will  go  to  a  depth  of  8  feet  if  the  restriction  is 
removed.  Wheat,  oats  and  barley  will  penetrate  from  8  to  lo 
feet,  grass  roots  will  go  down  6  and  8  feet,  while  alfalfa  has 
been  known  to  go  down  over  30  feet.  Grapevine  roots  have 
been  found  22  feet  below  the  surface,  while  the  root  systems 
of  trees  correspond  in  extent  and  branching  to  the  parts  above 
ground.  The  roots  of  clover  weigh  as  much  as  the  total  weight 
of  the  year's  crops,  while  the  roots  of  an  oat  crop  are  nearly 
50  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  seed  and  straw.  The  total 
length  of  all  the  roots  of  a  wheat  plant  was  found  to  be  about 
268  feet,  of  one  rye  plant  385  feet,  and  of  one  corn  plant 
1452  feet.  Such  facts  show  that  the  size  and  depth  of  the  root 
systems  are  generally  not  appreciated,  and  are  generally  under- 
estimated.   It  is  evident  that  the  roots  need  a  far  deeper  feeding 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


55 


Courtesy  Prof.  Ten  Eyck,  Kas.  Rxpt.  Sta. 

DEEP   ROOTING   OF   CORN    AND   ALFALFA 


zone  than  is^ ordinarily  given  them.  The  feeding  zone  has  been 
shallow  and  meager,  largely  because  the  farmer  could  formerly 
find  no  suitable  means  for  the  deep  cultivation.  No  practical 
machinery  can  till  the  soil  as  deep  as  2  feet,  and  even  that  limit 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  crops.  Such  deep  cultivation 
is  possible  only  with  high  explosives. 

The  benefits  of  deep  rooting  of  a  crop  do  not  pass  away  when 
the  crop  is  harvested,  for  the  roots  are  left  down  where  they 
grew,  and  on  decaying  form  humus  at  a  depth  where  it  would 
be  impossible  to  place  it  by  artificial  means,  down  where  it 
will  help  to  perpetuate  the  granulated  condition  of  the  subsoil, 
and  keep  alive  the  deep  feeding  and  working  bacteria,  helping 
the  farmer  to  gain  thereby  the  full  return  from  all  of  his  field 
rather  than  from  the  top  only. 


56 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


Weeds  and  Their  Effects. — Weeds  injure  crops  by  robbing 
them  of  their  water  and  food.  The  escape  of  water  is  intangi- 
ble, Hke  the  setting  free  of  plant  food,  because  we  cannot  see 
either  with  the  eye  and  must  put  our  wits  to  work  to  detect  its 
departure.    Weeds  may  have  a  mission  in  life;  anyway  they  are 


WEEDS THE   STAR    HOARDERS 


stimulating  rascals.  When  the  farmer  gets  mad  enough  to  go 
after  them,  their  mission  is  ended,  for  by  destroying  them  he 
conserves  the  moisture  by  unconsciously  cultivating  the  ground 
and  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Conserving  the  Moisture. — Where  the  moisture  supply  is 
deficient,  weeds  should  not  be  allowed  at  any  time  before, 
during,  or  after  the  crops,  for  they  remove  water  from  the 
soil  as  rapidly  as  the  useful  plants.  When  the  water  is  ample, 
but  the  soil  too  fine  to  permit  rapid  enough  capillary  movement, 


VERTICAL     FARMING  57 

green  manure  should  be  grown  and  plowed  under  deeply.  The 
chief  feature  in  conserving  moisture  is,  of  course,  to  get  the 
moisture  in  hand.  This  can  only  be  done  by  leading  it  down 
into  the  soil  to  great  depths.  If  the  soil  is  of  such  a  nature  that 
this  takes  place  of  its  own  accord,  all  well  and  good,  but  many 
soils  are  not  that  way.  They  are  stubborn,  and  need  a  real  first- 
class  shooting  with  an  explosive  to  subdue  them.  Then  the 
maintenance  of  the  organic  matter  and  surface  mulch  can  reach 
their  desired  effects. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  soil  conditions  cause  water  to  be  held  on  the  surface  of 

fields? 

2.  Will  oil  rise  faster  in  a  moist  or  dry  lamp  wick?    Will  the 
^    same  principle  always  hold  true  of  soils? 

3.  Why  does  a  dry  layer  of   soil   stop  the  capillary  rise  of 

moisture  ? 

4.  When  should  a  dust  mulch  be  renewed  ? 

5.  What  effect  would  a  few  inches  of  loose  straw  on  the  surface 

have  on  the  soil  moisture  during  a  rain  ?    During  hot,  dry 
weather  ? 

6.  Why  is  it  beneficial  to  fall  plow  and  deep  till  thin,  hard 

lands  and  cover  the  surface  with  trash? 

7.  Which  will  you  find  at   greater   depths,   wheat   or  clover 

roots  ? 


THE   PLOW  GIVES  THE  IDEAL  SURFACE  BREAKING  BUT  ONLY 
EXPLOSIVES  CAN    ATTACK    THE  DEEP  TROUBLES    ' 


VERTICAL  FARMING 

PART  VI 

Cultivation — Use  of  Explosives 

The  present  means  and  methods  of  cultivation  are  behind 
the  times.  They  are  not  up  to  date  with  the  progress  made  all 
along  other  lines.  They  all  work  too  shallow,  cultivating  the 
land  a  few  inches  where  they  should  loosen  and  stir  to  a  depth 
of  several  feet.  A  world  of  wealth  in  thought,  money,  inven- 
tion and  machinery  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  first  few  inches 
of  the  soil  at  the  surface,  but  up-to-date  agriculture  demands 
ihat  the  depths  of  the  soil  be  considered  also.  It  is  nbt  enough 
to  just  scratch  the  surface  and  leave  untouched  the  storehouse 
of  wealth  below. 

A  World  of  Tools. — The  farmer  has  at  his  command  for 
working  this  thin  skin  of  the  surface  inches  a  wonderful  array 
of  tools.  He  has  plows  of  all  kinds  and  qualities  to  select  from 
to  fit  every  surface  condition  imaginable — hillside,  landside, 
hinge,  and  swivel  plows — equipped  with  every  shape  of  mold- 
board,  and  coulters  that  may  be  fin,  knife  or  rocking.'  He  may 
use  hand,  sulky,  or  motor  plows,  and  work  them  single,  double, 
or  in  gangs.  He  has  harrows  without  number,  home-made  and 
latest  patent,  coulter,  spring,  chain,  slicing,  spading  and  cuta- 
way, all  of  them  equipped  with  teeth  set  vertical  or  set  slanting, 
with  plain,  twisted,  shovel,  coulter,  spike,  and  spring  teeth  in  a 
bewildering  dental  display.  He  has  cultivators  of  all  sorts  and 
breeds — hand,  walking,  and  riding.  He  has  drags,  rollers, 
plankers,  floats,  boats,  clod  crushers,  pulverizers,  and  smooth- 
ers, and  he  has  so-called  subsoilers  in  good  variety  that  work 
only  a  few  inches  deeper  than  the  tools  already  mentioned. 


60 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


Yet  with  all  this  to  select  from  he  can  do  but  little  better  than 
the  Romans  did — prepare  the  seed  beds  and  scratch  the  surface, 
while  at  greater  depth  the  roots  still  have  to  scratch  for  them- 
selves, as  they  did  centuries  ago.  It  is  too  much  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  man  who  only  greased  the  front  wheels  of  his 
wagon,  saying  that  if  they  went  the  hind  ones  would  *'  just 
naturally  have  to  follow." 

Progress  Demanded. — With  lands  becoming  scarce  and 
prices  higher,  there  is  a  demand  for  methods  that  are  more 
efficient,  that  will  cultivate  the  ground  to  greater  depths,  that 
will  meet  the  demands  of  the  feeding  roots,  that  will  double  the 
feeding  zone,  that  will  furnish  deep  moisture  reservoirs,  that 
will  extend  bacterial  activity  downward,  that  will  double  and 
treble  the  farmer's  acreage  of  productive  soil  by  depth,  and  not 
by  area.  So  far  as  these  demands  are  concerned,  farm  machin- 
ery is  so  far  a  failure  and  but  little  advance  has  been  made  on 
the  primitive  plow,  the  sharp  stick  with  a  V-branch.    It  is  not 


MARVELOUS  IMPROVEMENTS  HAVE  BEEN  MADE  IN  SURFACE 
CULTIVATION 


VERTICAL     FARMING  61 

enough  to  secure  ease  of  draft,  or  raise  heavier  and  faster 
walking  horses.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  ox,  horse  and  mule 
are  giving  way  to  steam,  gasoline,  and  electricity,  to  cable 
traction  and  automobile  luxury.  It  is  not  enough  to  point  with 
pride  from  the  one-negro-one-mule-one-plow  combination  to  the 
monster  steam  gang  plows.  Something  more  is  demanded. 
The  present  machinery  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes,  and  is  the  best 
that  the  world  has  ever  seen  until  recently,  but  it  does  not  go  far 
enough.  It  does  not  go  down.  Many  remedies  have  been  sug- 
gested only  to  meet  with  a  cold  reception.  It  is  always  difficult 
to  change  old  conditions,  old  customs,  for  there  is  ever  prejudice 
against  such  changes.  The  kind  of  prejudice  that  the  first  cast 
iron  plows  (Newbolds,  1797)  "  poisoned  the  land  "  and  "  caused 
weeds  to  grow  "  is  still  in  existence,  and  can  only  be  overcome 
by  enlightenment. 


PLOW   USED  BY  EARLY  AMERICAN 

THE  ANCIENTS  TYPE 

Shallow  Methods  Prevail. — All  methods  and  machinery  in 
common  use  are  good  for  preparing  the  seed  bed,  but  are  of 
little  or  no  use  in  helping  the  roots  to  go  down  to  their  natural 
length ;  of  no  use  in  improving  the  soil  atmosphere  more  than  a 
foot  or  two,  or  in  meeting  the  many  and  varied  demands  of  the 
plant  system  below  the  surface.  The  function  of  the  plow  is 
essentially  to  turn  a  thin  ribbon  of  the  soil  on  edge  or  upside 
down,  and  to  shatter  and  break  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  much 
as  possible,  and  to  destroy  weeds,  and  bury  refuse.  Harrows 
and  cultivators  have  primarily  a  stirring  action  that  forms 
mulches  and  prevents  surface  evaporation,  but  they  work  at 
even  shallower  depths  than  the  plow.  Some  of  the  instruments 
used  tend  to  form  plow  sole,  or  hardpan  and  impacted  con- 
ditions of  the  soil  close  to  the  surface,  defeating  the  very  object 
of  cultivation. 


62 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


The  most  effective  of  all  farm  tools  in  breaking  up  the  sur- 
face soil  is  the  plow,  and  its  use  in  working  up  a  tight  surface 
soil  into  a  satisfactory  condition  of  tilth  must  never  be  over- 
looked. The  effectiveness  of  the  plow  has  been  improved  by 
using  modifications  that  will  disturb  the  soil  to  greater  depths 
than  is  possible  with  an  ordinary  moldboard  plow.     The  best 

known  tool  of  this  type  is  the 
narrow  subsoil  plow  that  fol- 
lows along  in  the  freshly 
turned  furrow  of  the  regular 
plow,  deepening  the  cultiva- 
tion several  inches.  Such  a 
plow  does  not  bring  the  sub- 
soil to  the  surface  but  simply 
stirs  the  subsoil.  The  depth  reached  is  seldom  as  much  as  i8 
inches  and  is  usually  not  more  than  12  to  14  inches.  A  more 
improved  implement  is  the  new  double  disc  Spaulding  Deep 
Tilling  Machine,  which  combines  in  one  tool  both  the  surface 


COMMON    SUBSOILER 


SPAULDING  DEEP  TILLING  MACHINE 


VERTICAL     FARMING 


63 


and  the  sub-surface  plow.  One  heavy  disc  follows  behind 
and  below  another,  and  by  their  cutting,  twisting  action 
break  and  mix  Lhe  surface  soil  with  a  layer  of  the  material 
lying  underneath.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  with 
both  forms  of  deep  plows,  and  their  use  is  strongly  recom- 
mended, as  their  immediate  action  is  to  break  up  the  plow  sole 
or  shallowest  hardpan  material.  They  also  leave  the  surface 
and  immediate  sub-surface  in  a  most  desirable  condition  to 
receive  the  rain  water  and  allow  it  to  be  conducted  to  the  deeper 
subsoil  that  has  been  shattered  with  an  explosive,  where  it  may 
be  held  by  capillary  absorption. 

Benefit  of  Using  Explosives. — It  is  admitted  that  present 
methods  of  cultivation  do  not  go  deep  enough,  and  it  must  also 
be  admitted  that  the  use  of  specially  prepared  agricultural 
explosives  offers  the  desired  remedy.     It  is  admitted  by  all 


k^ 


li- 


PLOWl/^O- 


PBEP  TILLA&C 


BLA3TBO    3UeSO/L. 


NEARLY    lh]PER\IIOU3    CL/KY     5UB50IL 


GF{/\yEL     OH     5ANO 


COMPARATIVE  DEPTHS  REACHED  BY  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  TILLAGE 


authorities  in  agriculture  that  the  plow  and  harrows  do  not 
go  deep  enough  and  they  advise  the  use  of  subsoilers.  Scores 
of  books  explain  how  and  why  each  piece  of  machinery  turns 
over  the  soil,  reduces  it  to  fineness,  forms  mulches,  saves  water, 
breaks  clods,  aerates,  stimulates  bacteria,  etc.  If  all  this  wealth 
of  invention  and  labor  is  worth  while  bestowing  upon  the  first 
feiv  inches  of  the  soil  why  it  is  not  w^orth  following  the  roots 


64  VERTICAL     FARMING 

down  to  their  second  foot  of  growth,  their  third,  and  even  their 
eighth  and  tenth  foot  when  they  flourish  at  those  depths.  The 
only  reply  is,  "  Yes  it  would  pay,  but  how  can  it  be  done  ?  ".  It 
can  be  done  economically,  quickly,  and  thoroughly  by  the  use  of 
explosives.  Deep  plowing  is  recommended  by  all  authorities 
"  wherever  the  resisting  soil  will  permit."  Machinery  made 
especially  for  deep  work  may  be  stopped,  but  nothing  can 
resist  the  explosives.  The  farmer  plows,  harrows,  and  spends 
time,  labor  and  money  in  cultivating  the  surface  foot  and  re- 
joices in  the  wonderful  alchemy  that  follows  his  endeavors — the 
mysterious  activities  he  has  set  in  motion.  He  works  cheerfully 
and  with  confidence,  largely  because  he  can  see  what  he  is  doing. 
In  the  new  agriculture  he  must  work  by  faith  and  reason  in 
depths  where  he  cannot  see  with  his  eyes  what  is  taking  place. 
The  result  will  place  before  his  eyes  in  the  form  of  bumper  crops 
proofs  of  the  benefits  of  his  work.  The  new  agriculture  simply 
points  out  the  benefits  acquired  by  the  thorough  cultivation  of 
the  foot,  or  two  feet,  and  by  explaining  how  and  why  this  is 
accomplished,  points  out  the  value  of  extending  the  cultivation 
further  down  by  the  simple  means  of  explosives.  The  harrow 
warms  and  aerates  the  soil  and  promotes  activity  by  loosening 
and  separating  the  soil  particles  at  the  surface.  Explosives  do 
the  same,  breaking,  loosening,  pulverizing  at  depths  machinery 
cannot  reach.  Drainage  is  recommended  by  all  because  it 
removes  excess  of  water,  admits  air,  and  gives  proper  moisture 
conditions.  Explosives  have  drained  many  a  field  and  secured 
all  these  benefits  at  far  less  cost  in  time,  labor  and  money  than 
the  usual  methods  of  ditching  and  tilling. 

The  importance  of  nitrification  is  proven,  but  why  confine  it 
to  the  thin  furrow  slice  when  the  action  of  bacteria  has  been 
proven  at  depths  of  6  feet  in  the  humid  soils  of  the  East,  and 
still  deeper  in  the  porous  soils  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions 
of  the  West  ?  Why  not  loosen  the  soil  and  secure  proper  condi- 
tions by  the  use  of  some  charges  of  explosives?  It  is  admitted 
that  there  is  much  of  plant  food  below  the  shallow  plowed  and 
cultivated  ground,  aiid  that  the  roots  will  go  down  if  they  can. 
Why  not  open  the  way  and  make  it  easy  for  them  by  cracking 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


65 


and  pulverizing  the  soil  with  explosives  as  far  down  as  the  roots 
care  to  go  ?  It  is  admitted  that  water  may  be  stored,  as  in  dry 
farming,  by  converting  the  soil  itself  into  a  reservoir  by  making 
it  porous  so  that  it  absorbs  water  and  holds  it  like  a  sponge. 
Why  not  use  explosives  and  make  the  reservoirs  two  and  three 
times  as  great  and  secure  absolute  instead  of  partial  insurance 
against  drouth? 

It  is  admitted  that  much  of  the  rainfall  is  lost  by  running  off, 
and  consequent  damage  done  by  erosion.  Why  not  check  this 
by  the  use  of  explosives  before  the  rainy  season,  storing  the 
rainfall  in  porous  soil  instead  of  letting  it  run  to  waste?     It 

is  admitted  that  some  of  the      

soils  called  "  wornout,"  or 
"  poisoned  "  and  "  worthless  " 
may  be  reclaimed  if  the  soil  is 
thoroughly  stirred  up  from  the 
depths.  What  can  do  this  so 
efficiently  as  explosives  ?  It  is 
admitted  that  much  of  the 
plant  food  in  the  soil  is  una- 
vailable because  it  is  un- 
weathered.  Why  not  make  it 
available  by  opening  the 
ground  to  weathering  agencies 
by  explosives? 

The  benefits  of  clean  sum- 
mer following  every  other 
crop,  under  low  rainfall,  and 
occasionally  under  abundant 
rainfall  are  admitted.  Why 
not  secure  these  benefits  by 
means  of  explosives?  It  is 
admitted  that  granulation  of 
a   soil   is   a   benefit,   that   any 

treatment  that  increases  the  lines  of  weakness  in  the  soil 
structure  facilitates  the  movement  of  capillary  water,  and  the 
action  of  moisture  films.  The  more  numerous  the  lines  of 
weakness  the  quicker  granulation  is  secured. 


FROM   DEEP  SHATTERED 
SUBSOIL 


66 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


The  fewer  the  lines  of  weakness  the  more  close  and  cloddy 
the  structure.  What  will  granulate  soil  to  the  depths  quicker 
than  explosives?  It  is  admitted  that  present  machinery  can 
only  increase  the  feeding  zone  of  the  roots  an  inch  or  two. 
What  can  explosives  do  in  this  line?  A  cubic  yard  of  hard  soil 
has  6  faces  and  9  square  feet  in  each  face,  or  a  total  of  54  square 
feet.  Divide  it  into  i  foot  cubes  and  there  are  162  feet  of 
surface.  Break  it  into  inch  cubes  and  it  presents  1944  square 
feet,  or  nearly  1/20  of  an  acre  of  feeding  surface  for  the  roots. 


TOY   BLOCKS   TO   REPRESENT   THE   INCREASE   IN    SURFACE    AREA 

THE  REPRESENTED   CUBIC  YARD  HAS  A  SURFACE  AREA  OF   54 

SQUARE  FEET.      THE  2/  CUBIC    FEET  A  SURFACE  OF    162 

SQUARE    FEET.       IF    BROKEN    TO    INCH    CUBES    THE 

AREA    IS    1944   SQUARE    FEET 


VERTICAL    FARMING 


67 


SHATTERING  SUBSOILS  WITH  FARM  POWDER 


A  single  cartridge  of  explosive  can  easily  convert  several  yards 
of  compact  and  useless  hardpan  into  half  an  acre  of  new  feed- 
ing ground.  Costly,  massive,  improved  machinery  enables  the 
farmer  to  spread  out  his  operation,  to  move  horizontally,  and 
handle  more  acreage  in  the  same  time,  and  he  is  ever  eager  to 
double  and  treble  his  holdings  of  fertile  soil.  \\'hat  is  wanted 
that  enables  him  to  move  vertically  down  and 


IS 


something 


double  his  acreage,  and  double  his  yield  by  doubling  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  by  doubling  the  depth  of  the  feeding  zone,  by 


68  VERTICAL     FARMING 

doubling  the  water  supply,  by  cultivating  the  ground  to  double 
and  treble  the  former  depths.  ''  Vertical  Farming/'  to  coin  a 
name,  is  the  keynote  of  a  new  agriculture  that  has  come  to  stay, 
for  inexpensive  explosives  enable  the  farmer  to  farm  deeper,  to 
go  down  to  increase  his  acreage,  and  to  secure  larger  crops. 
Instead  of  spreading  out  over  more  land  he  concentrates  on  less 
land  and  becomes  an  intensive  rather  than  an  extensive  agri- 
culturist, and  soon  learns  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  double  the 
depth  of  his  fertile  land  than  to  double  the  area  of  his  holdings, 
and  he  learns  that  his  best  aid  and  servant  in  this  work  is  a  good 
explosive.  Peace  congresses  demand  that  swords  be  turned  into 
pruning  hooks.  The  farmer  is  busy  turning  explosives  from 
war  to  agriculture,  from  death  dealing  to  life  giving  work. 

There  is  a  demand  to-day  for  farmers  who  think,  and  who 
think  long  and  closely  as  well  as  observe;  for  men  who  reject 
nothing  because  it  is  an  innovation,  because  it  is  new.  Men 
are  wanted  everywhere  who  have  thought  for  themselves  how 
soil  first  came  into  being  and  what  its  form  and  character  are 
and  what  they  mean ;  men  who  are  not  satisfied  until  they  know 
how  plants  feed,  where  they  feed,  and  the  nature  of  their  food ; 
men  who  look  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  realize  that 
as  much  of  their  future  crop  is  there  as  will  be  above  the  sur- 
face, that  plant  roots  must  have  air  and  water  at  the  right 
times  and  in  the  right  abundance  as  much  as  the  animals  in  their 
barns. 

This  kind  of  men  have  been  and  are  using  explosives  freely 
as  the  best  and  simplest  means  of  securing  success  and  accom- 
plishing their  object.  Their  success  may  be  duplicated  by  all 
who  care  to  do  so.  The  use  of  explosives  for  deep  cultivating 
and  other  farm  purposes  has  come  to  stay. 

Vertical  farming  with  explosives  is  another  step  forward 
as  truly  as  irrigation  and  dry  farming,  and  is  greater,  for  unlike 
them  it  is  not  limited  to  any  area  or  region  but  may  be  practised 
everywhere  and  anywhere.    It  has  the  world  for  its  field. 


VERTICAL    FARMi'nG  69 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  your  investment  in  tools  per  acre  of  land  tilled? 

2.  What  is  your  total  cost  of  preparing,  seeding,  cultivating, 

and  harvesting  one  acre  of  money  crop? 

3.  What  improvements  over  the  practices  of  your  father  have 

you  made  in  the  use  of  field  machinery  and  supplies? 

4.  How  deep  do  you  actually  plow?     (^Measure  the  depth  at 

the  unbroken  side  of  the  furrow.) 

5.  Did  you  ever  follow  up  the  full  development  of  the  roots  of 

a  tree  or  a  field  plant  ?    What  did  you  find  ? 

6.  Have  you  any  actual  knowledge  of  the  character  of  your 

subsoil  ? 


The  Ideal  Explosives  for 

VERTICAL  FARMING 

RED  CROSS  FARM  POWDER 
RED  CROSS  STUMPING  POWDER 

Q  Both  are  low-freezing,  hence  require  no  thawing 
in  any  weather  fit  for  work  out-of-doors.  They  can 
be  used  successfully  in  the  winter-time  when  farm 
duties  are  lightest.  Both  are  as  safe  as  anything 
explosive  can  possibly  be. 

^  Both  are  easy  to  use  by  following  the  plain 
illustrated  instructions  in  our  booklet. 

^  Red  Cross  Farm  Powder  is  made  especially  for 
blasting  subsoils,  either  for  tree-planting  or  general 
crops,  for  electric  ditch  blasting,  and  for  light 
stump-blasting. 

^  Red  Cross  Stumping  Powder  is  made  especially 
for  heavier  stump  and  ditch  blasting. 

Q  DuPont  Dynamite  50%  is  best  for  boulder  blast- 
ing and  ditch  blasting  without  a  blasting  machine 
in  mucky  or  saturated  soil. 

9  Make  every  acre  productive.  Get  the  most  pos- 
sible per  acre.  High  prices  of  farm  products  will 
continue  for  many  years  to  come. 

Q  Write  for  our  free  Farmer's  Handbook  of 
Explosives  and  learn  the  how  of  vertical  farming. 

AGRICULTURAL  DIVISION 

E.  L  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder  Co. 

Wilmington,  Delaware 


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YG  4057C 


U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


CDMS^mb73 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  IvIBRARY 


